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1 1. Mikhail Bulgakov, The Master and Margarita, p. 306.

2 2. Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, ‘Beyond “identity”’.

3 3. There is a huge body of research available about the passports of various countries. Many of these works will be referred to in the appropriate sections of this book. Here I should like to indicate just a few authors, whose works appear in the Bibliography: John Torpey, Martin Lloyd, Mark B. Salter, Craig Robertson, Philip Frankel, Leo Lucassen and Yelena Breus.

4 4. This situation still pertains to the modern Russian passport. In fact, the areas in which the passport is used have grown significantly in the post-Soviet period. It is now compulsory to produce the passport not just when purchasing air tickets but even for train journeys, too. It has to be shown for all bank transactions, and so on. Not surprisingly, those who remember life in Soviet times now think that, ‘in the old days we were hardly ever asked to show our passport’.

5 5. Bol’shoi yuridichesky slovar’ (The Great Dictionary of Legal Terminology), V.N. Dodonov and others.

6 6. Amongst the reasons for the much wider understanding today of what a document is, it is worth pointing out its use in the terminology of Internet resources, whereby any text (including ‘empty’ texts) is referred to as ‘a document’, although the original meaning of the English word ‘document’ referred to something written down, in particular a paper text (hence the term ‘document case’ to refer to a briefcase).

7 7. [Yury Tynyanov was a literary theorist, critic, writer and translator in the early Soviet period – Tr.]

8 8. There are not many works available in this area, but the most significant is, Francis X. Blouin and William G. Rosenberg, Processing the Past….

9 9. On the status of the document in the digital age, see David M. Levy, Scrolling Forward…; Michael K. Buckland, What Is a “Document”?…, pp. 804–9.

10 10. Status dokumenta…, Ot redaktora, Irina Kaspe, p. 6.

11 11. No English word exists that has the same precise significance of the Russian dokumentnoye, ‘pertaining to identity documents’; accordingly, we have assigned this meaning to the obsolete word ‘documental’ (‘of or pertaining to documents’, Oxford English Dictionary).

12 12. On the ‘paper’ nature of documents, see Galina Orlova, Izobretaya dokument…, pp. 19–52.

13 13. It should be noted, however, that this has not always been the case in every bureaucracy. In France, for example, it is still usual for any address to official bodies to be handwritten.

14 14. S.I. Gindin, Vnutrennyaya organizatsiya teksta…, pp. 3–15.

15 15. On the attitude to the written word in peasant culture, see Albert Baiburin, Zametki k teme…, pp. 106–9.

16 16. Galina Orlova, Izobretaya dokument…, p. 37.

17 17. It is also probably worth taking into consideration that texts that develop the idea of the ‘independence’ of the document work only against the background of the mass of identity written into them and precede them as evidence. I am grateful to Georgi Levinton for bringing this to my attention.

18 18. Another institution that claims to be the protector of the truth is science, which much more recently has played its role in the documentation of culture. It is significant that in his work, The Law Factory, the French philosopher, Bruno Latour, constantly draws parallels between the law and science. See Bruno Latour, La fabrique du droit….

19 19. David M. Levy, Scrolling Forward…, p. 23.

20 20. Viktor Vakhshtein considers that documents (as opposed to texts) are ‘instruments for the production of absurdity’. See Viktor Vakhshtein, Proizvodstvo absurda v universitetye…, p. 382.

21 21. On the falsification of documents, see, for example, E. Vasilieva, Legal’niye I nelgal’niye dokumenty…, pp. 27–39; E. Vasilieva, Sotsial’niye aspekty fal’sifikatsii…, pp. 103–22.

22 22. Some interesting thoughts on this topic appear in an article published in Zhivoy Zhurnal, david_gor., ‘Ustanovleniye lichnosti’….

23 23. B.V. Drozdov, Lichnaya svoboda….

24 24. According to Lev Gudkov, in his work Trust in Russia, published in 2012, ‘in the period when sociology was becoming recognized as a discipline (1900–1920s), trust, along with other forms of social interaction … was one of the main categories used to measure the integration of social structures’; Lev Gudkov, Doveriye v Rossii….

25 25. Piotr Sztompka, Trust: A Sociological Theory; ‘Trust and Distrust in the USSR’, Special Issue of Slavonic and East European Review, pp. 1–154; Geoffrey Hosking, ‘Trust and distrust…’; Niklas Luhmann, Trust and Power…; Joseph S. Berliner, Factory and Manager…; Yoram Gorlizki, ‘Too much trust…’.

26 26. Dmitry Kalugin, Review of Status dokumenta….

27 27. [Blat, ‘pull’ or ‘graft’ (originally criminal slang), was a peculiarly Soviet concept, born out of a society where shortages of all kinds of goods and foodstuffs was the norm. Blat could produce a whole network of interdependent actions, depending on who had access to what and who might need it. Such a system does not normally exist in a consumer society, though times of crisis such as wartime and pandemics may generate short-term analogies – Tr.]

28 28. [Kompromat is a Russian word meaning ‘compromising material held by one person against another’. In Soviet times, this suggested politically compromising material – Tr.] For more information, see also Aliona Ledeneva, Russia’s Economy of Favours…; Aliona Ledeneva, ‘The genealogy of krugovaia poruka…’; Diego Gambetta, Codes of the Underworld….

29 29. In particular, see Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft….

30 30. Pierre Bourdieu, (English translation) From the King’s House to the Reason of State: A Model of the Genesis of the Bureaucratic Field, https://ru.scribd.com/document/283196614/From-the-Kings-House-to-the-Reason-of-State-a-Model-of-the-Genesis-of-the-Bureaucratic-Field, accessed 18 October 2020.

31 31. On the link between modernity and a sharp rise in the significance of state systems of government, see Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity…. For the Soviet idea of modernity, see David Shearer, ‘Modernity and backwardness on the Soviet frontier…’.

32 32. Michel Foucault, Society Must Be Defended…; Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison…; Pierre Bourdieu, Sotsiologiya sotsial’nogo prostranstva….

33 33. Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence…, p. 46.

34 34. Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, ‘Beyond “identity”’, p. 86.

35 35. Ibid., p. 87.

36 36. Rom Harré, Personal Being….

37 37. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Tear Off the Masks!…, p. 14.

38 38. Igal Halfin and Jochen Hellbeck, Interview, p. 222 (in Russian).

39 39. Jochen Hellbeck, Revolution on My Mind…; Jochen Hellbeck, ‘Working, struggling, becoming’…. This position was strongly criticized by Svetlana Boym, who doubted the reliability of Hellbeck’s research. She considered it to have been carried out using a limited amount of material and from an insufficiently reflective methodological and theoretical position. See Svetlana Boym, ‘Kak sdelana sovietskaya sub”yektivnost’?’….

40 40. Oleg Kharkhordin, Oblichat’ i litsemerit’: genealogiya….

41 41. Oleg Kharkhordin, ‘Oblichat’ i litsemerit’ – eto po-russki’….

42 42. For the public and the private in connection with telephone numbers, see Ilya Kukulin, ‘Odomashnivaniye…’.

43 43. Oleg Kharkhordin, for example, points out that in Stalin’s time, ‘the system was concerned not with the citizens’ feelings, but with their public behaviour’; Oblichat’ i litsemerit’: genealogiya…, p. 361.

44 44. Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life….

45 45. Details can be found at https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/identinet; the site http://identinet.org.uk/ is no longer accessible. In particular, see Documenting Individual Identity….

46 46. John Torpey, The Invention of the Passport…; also the article by John Torpey, ‘The Great War…’.

47 47. B.V. Ananich, ‘Iz istorii zakonodatel’stva…’; Yevgeny Anisimov, Podatnaya reforma Pyotra I….

48 48. Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society…; see also, Jeffrey Burds, ‘The social control…’.

49 49. Valentina Chernukha, Pasport v Rossii….

50 50. See, for example, S.N. Farkin, Pochemu vvedena pasportnaya sistema, and numerous others.

51 51. Valery Popov, ‘Pasportnaya sistema sovietskogo krepostnichestva’; Kronid Lyubarsky, ‘Pasportnaya sistema…’.

52 52. As well as the aforementioned works by Valery Popov and Kronid Lyubarsky, see Marc Garcelon, ‘Colonizing the subject…’; Gijs Kessler, ‘The passport system…’; Paul Hagenloh, Stalin’s Police….

53 53. For example, as a mechanism for distributing resources (especially foodstuffs at times of chronic shortages), see Cynthia Buckley, ‘The myth of managed migration…’; Yelena Osokina, Za fasadom stalinskogo….

54 54. See, particularly, David Shearer, ‘Elements near and alien…’; and Nathalie Moine, ‘Passeportisation, statistique des migrations…’; Ye.N. Chernolutskaya, ‘Pasportizatsiya sovietskogo naseleniya…’; E.N. Chernolutskaya, ‘Pasportizatsiya dal’nevostochnogo…’; Alexander Tarasov, ‘Nekotoriye problemy…’.

55 55. Sheila Fitzpatrick, ‘Ascribing class…’.

56 56. See, for example, Golfo Alexopoulos, Stalin’s Outcasts…; Charles Steinwedel, ‘Making social groups…’; Marc Garcelon, ‘Colonizing the subject…’.

57 57. Terry Martin, An Affirmative Action Empire…; Juliette Cadiot, ‘Searching for nationality…’; Juliette Cadiot, ‘How diversity was ordered…’; Ronald Suny, ‘Constructing primordialism…’; Juliette Cadiot, Le laboratoire impérial….

58 58. It is unlikely that this dual level of official law was created intentionally. It is more likely that it developed spontaneously. Frequently an official would put the stamp ‘Secret’ on a document ‘just in case’, in order to protect themselves. Without this stamp the document would have been simply an internal instruction, which there would have been no point in publishing anyway, because it was addressed to a particular group. So it is often difficult to ascertain where the boundary lies between these two types of official law.

59 59. [When major cities (Moscow especially) needed extra manual workers, individual factories were allowed to invite people from the countryside to fill the places, but a quota [Russ: limit] was put on how many they could invite. Because of this limit, those who took up the places were nicknamed limitchiki. The work was mundane, but the attraction was that those who took up this work could eventually obtain a resident’s permit. Spetsposelentsy were people who had been sent away in internal exile and were refused permission to return to their place of origin when their sentence was completed. The term means ‘special settlers’ – Tr.]