Читать книгу The Soviet Passport - Albert Baiburin - Страница 28

1 1. The example usually cited is the documents of passage, which are referred to in the Book of Nehemiah in the Old Testament. It is stated: ‘I spoke to the king once more, “If it please the king, could letters be given me for the governors of Transeuphrates to allow me to pass through to Judah”’ (Nehemiah, Ch. 2, v. 7). It is reckoned that these words were written in the fifth century BCE.

2 2. For the history of the passport system in the countries of Europe, see John Torpey, The Invention of the Passport…; Mark B. Salter, Rites of Passage…; People, Papers and Practics: Registration and Recognition: Documenting the Person in World History, Eds. K. Breckenridge, S. Szreter (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); and others.

3 3. For more on this function of the first identification documents, see Valentin Groebner, ‘Describing the person…’.

4 4. Ibid., pp. 25–6.

5 5. [Russ: obshchina or mir. From ancient times, the obshchina was the basic community structure on which Russian society was organized, by territory or a religious community. The mir was similar but referred specifically to a rural community – Tr.]

6 6. Viktor Vinogradov, Istoriya slov…, pp. 271–2.

7 7. Albert Baiburin, ‘K antropologii dokumenta…’.

8 8. It probably came from the Dutch, paspoort or the German, der Pass, itself from the French, passeport. See Max Fasmer, Etimologichesky slovar’ russkogo yazyka….

9 9. At first, the right to issue such letters lay with the Grand Prince, but later (in the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth centuries), the various state offices were given permission (the Embassy Office, the Foreigners’ Office, the Siberian Office, the Office of Ranks, and others). After the publication of the Legal Code of 1649, provincial governors were given the right to issue them, ‘in order not to create obstacles to trade’.

10 10. S.N. Romanova and I.I. Glukhovskaya, ‘Ukazatel’ vidov dokumentov…’.

11 11. Polnoe sobraniye zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii (PSZ, Complete Laws of the Russian Empire), I, Vol. 1, No. 1, Ulozhenie (The Legal Code), Chapter VI, p. 8.

12 12. For more on the authorization letters, see Viktor Paneyakh, ‘Ukazy o kholop’ikh…’.

13 13. Rossiiskoye zakonodatel’stvo X–XX vekov….

14 14. Zakonodatel’niye akty Russkogo gosudarstva….

15 15. In Chapter XX, The Law on Villeins, in the Legal Code, Article 75 states: ‘Concerning people who present at a trial two limited service slavery contracts [issued in] Moscow on one slave; and both of those limited service slavery contracts are written in the books; and that slave corresponds in features and identifying marks with the books according to one limited service slavery contract, but does not correspond with the other: return that contested slave as a slave on the basis of that limited service slavery contract in which he corresponds with the books in features and marks, even if that limited service slavery contract was gotten after that limited service slavery contract on whose basis that slave does not correspond with the books in identification marks.’ Full English translation of the Code is available at https://pages.uoregon.edu/kimball/1649-Ulj.htm. [In this version, the Russian word kholop is translated as ‘slave’. In medieval England a more appropriate term would be ‘villein’, hence its use in the main text – Tr.]

16 16. PSZ, I, Vol. V, No. 3445.

17 17. Ibid.

18 18. The tax reform is part of a project to provide the whole population (and in the first instance, the tax-payers) with documents allowing them to travel away from their place of residence. This was set out in a note left by an unknown author, which has been highlighted by Yevgeny Anisimov. The author of the note saw such measures as essential to bring order to the state. These ideas were laid out in the document known as the Plakat of 1724 and in later documents. See Yevgeny Anisimov, Podatnaya reforma…, pp. 253–5.

19 19. PSZ, I, Vol. VII, No. 4533.

20 20. Handwritten permissions were valid for short-term absences in the same district (up to 30 versts, about 32 km), if issued by the landowner, the bailiff or the parish priest.

21 21. For foreigners who wished to stay on in Russia after their time of service was over, another document, the Abshitd was introduced (from the German – modern version Abschied – meaning ‘farewell’ or ‘retired’). This contained: title or rank, name, origin, occupation and position, as well as place of issue of the document, issuing authority and date of issue. Its authenticity was confirmed by a seal and signatures. Everything in the Abshitd was written in Russian, including the name of the bearer. This was done to make it easier for semi-literate police officers to read it, but also for the russification of the ‘retiree’, and to help him and his family put their roots down in Russia. The russification of foreign names continued in the nineteenth century.

22 22. PSZ, Vol. VII, No. 4827.

23 23. For more details on the transition to the printed passport, see Simon Franklin, ‘Printing and social control…’.

24 24. Valentina Chernukha, Pasport v Rossii…, p. 27.

25 25. For more on nicknames, see Anna Kushkova, ‘Derevenskiye prozvishcha’; N. Schindler, ‘The world of nicknames’.

26 26. B.A. Uspensky, ‘Myena imyon v Rossii’, p. 492. [The Old Believers were those who refused to accept the Church reforms of the mid-seventeenth century. Despite being persecuted for this, Old Believer communities still exist – Tr.]

27 27. Vladimir Nikonov, Imya i obshchestvo…, p. 23.

28 28. Boris Unbegaun, Russkiye familii…, p. 16.

29 29. For more on the history of giving names, see B.A. Uspensky, Iz istorii russkikh kanonicheskikh imyon…; Boris Unbegaun, Russkiye familii….

30 30. As an example of this, see Proyekt zakona o poryadke prisvoeniya postoyannykh (nasledstvennykh) familii grazhdanam Turkmenskoi SSR.

31 31. For more details on the registers, see Metriki (obshchiye akty sostoyanii) u pravoslavnykh…; D.N. Antonov and I.A. Antonova, Metricheskiye knigi: vremya…; D.N. Antonov and I.A. Antonova, Metricheskiye knigi Rossii…; Dilyara Usmanova, Musul’manskiye metricheskiye knigi…; Eugene Avrutin, Jews and the Imperial State….

32 32. [Until reforms were introduced under Peter the Great, the social estate [Russ: sosloviye or soslovnaya prinadlezhnost’] to which a person belonged was fixed. It was impossible to move from one social estate to another. – Tr.]

33 33. For details of the class divisions in Russia at the time of the 1897 census, see Pervaya Vsyeobshchaya perepis’…, Table VIII.

34 34. The ‘Regulations on Passports and Runaways’ was a codified collection of all of the passport rules that had been issued over the previous two centuries, since the publication of the Legal Code of 1649. All laws on passports were published in the XIVth volume of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (1832).

35 35. PSZ, I, Vol. XIII, No. 9658.

36 36. PSZ, I, Vol. XXV, No. 18668.

37 37. PSZ, I, Vol. I, XXV, No. 18600.

38 38. PSZ, I, Vol. XXVII, No. 20595.

39 39. PSZ, I, Vol. XVI, No. 11988.

40 40. PSZ, I, Vol. XXVIII, No. 21939.

41 41. PSZ, I, Vol. XXXI, No. 24902.

42 42. PSZ, III, Vol. XXV, No. 26125.

43 43. Lyudmila Gatagova, ‘Kristallizatsiya etnicheskoi identichnosti…’.

44 44. Vladimir Solovyov, ‘Chteniya o bogochelovechestvye…’, p. 244.

45 45. For the religious picture of the Empire which emerged from the Census, see Pervaya Vsyeobshchaya perepis’…, Table XII.

46 46. John Torpey, ‘The Great War and the birth…’; compare this with the following: ‘At the Dresden Conference in 1850 passport rules on the territory of the German states were greatly simplified, and in 1859 Austria signed up to the Agreement. In 1865 and 1867 passport restrictions in Germany were virtually nullified. Passport restrictions were gradually abolished also in Denmark in 1862 and 1875; Spain, 1862 and 1878; and Italy, 1865 and 1873.’ Kronid Lyubarsky, ‘Pasportnaya sistema…’.

47 47. Valentina Chernukha, ‘Pasport v Rossiiskoi imperii…’, p. 112.

48 48. Sistematichesky sbornik zakonov…; Viktoriya Romanova, ‘Yevreyam priyezd i vodvoreniye…’; Liliya Kalmina, Yevreiskiye obshchiny….

49 49. PSZ, II, Vol. I4, pp. 1–102.

50 50. Valentina Chernukha, ‘Pasport v Rossiiskoi imperii…’, p. 116.

51 51. Ibid., p. 119.

52 52. Details about individuals were already held in a large number of documents: the registers of births, marriages and deaths; family lists; residential registers; citizens’ books; census lists; lists of those who had been sent in permanent exile; lists of peasants who were working at factories; official and service lists; inspectors’ notes; registration documents for noble families; alphabetical lists of noble families; details of people wanted by the police; and others. Each of these usually included the name, patronymic and surname; place and date of birth; position; place of permanent residence; and marital status.

53 53. PSZ, III, Vol. XIV, No. 10709. For the history of the creation of the ‘Resolution’, see B.V. Ananich, ‘Iz istorii zakonodatel’stva…’, pp. 34–5.

54 54. ‘The residence permit was the document used by the police to keep track of the population … It was in addition to the passport and was issued at the place of permanent residence to the head of the family at the peasant homestead. The document included details about the holder’s wife; sons and male relatives up to the age of eighteen years (both blood relatives and adopted ones); daughters up to twenty-one years; people of declining years; and those who through ill-health could not live unaided. Males under the age of seventeen and females under twenty-one could receive their own residence permit only with the permission of their parents. In such instances, a note of authorization was needed. By the law of 1897, a separate residence permit could be issued by the regional governor, town mayor or police chief to the wife of someone who was missing, declared insane or for some other reason. The head of the homestead alone or the local head did not have the right to issue separate residence permits to individual members of the peasant families, even if they had reached adult age. Official offices kept copies of all of these documents. Note: in place of the residence permit, Raskol’niki were issued with certificates, listing surname, name, patronymic, place of residence and relatives who lived with them.’ (See S.N. Romanova and I.I. Glukhovskaya, ‘Ukazatel’ vidov dokumentov…’).

55 55. At that time, even if they worked where they lived, workers in factories and mines had to have a passport, in which the rules about supervision were printed.

56 56. The Resolution made it possible to take the registration of the population to a new level, as was shown by the first general census of the population of the Russian Empire on 9 February 1897. This was done by taking a synchronized look at the population on one day. To this day it is considered to have been exemplary.

57 57. Because of the First World War and the call-up of men to the Front, from 1914 married women could be issued with a passport without a man’s permission.

58 58. Valentina Chernukha, ‘Pasport v Rossiiskoi imperii…’, p. 162.

59 59. As noted ironically by Valery Popov, ‘The existing passport regime in the Russian Empire enabled even revolutionaries who had served their sentence for particularly dangerous crimes to exist not as outcasts from society, but to live in normal, tolerable conditions, to change their place of abode, to continue to carry out revolutionary activities, and even travel abroad. Many abuses were linked directly to the unnecessary liberalization of the passport regime’ (Valery Popov, ‘Pasportnaya sistema sovietskogo krepostnichestva…’, p. 98).

60 60. Valentina Chernukha, ‘Pasport v Rossiiskoi imperii…’, p. 128.

61 61. By this same decree of 5 October 1906, the peasantry were granted the same rights as members of other classes, including free choice of where to live.