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1 1. See, among others: Cox 2020; Nie et al. 2016.

2 2. Osterholm 2005, p. 72; 2020 at 26.00.

3 3. The scale is reproduced and critiqued in Caduff 2015, pp. 174–5.

4 4. I discuss this in chapter 5. This definition was for influenza but it transfers readily to Covid-19.

5 5. A similar form of words was used by the WHO’s Bruce Aylward (see Aylward 2020).

6 6. Murray 2020 at 10.01. A closer parallel might be election forecasting while the candidates are breaking the rules and disrupting the process.

7 7. Margaret Chan, ‘World Now at the Start of 2009 Influenza Pandemic’, statement to the press, 11 June 2009.

8 8. See Kay and King 2020 for an exploration of this issue.

9 9. The CDC also asked the public not to buy respirator masks, fearing that there would not be enough for health workers.

10 10. Latour 2017, p. 117.

11 11. Krieger 2011, p. viii.

12 12. Quammen 2012, p. 515.

13 13. Peter Sands is a rare economist who recognizes this (see Sands et al. 2016).

14 14. Krieger 2011, p. 43; Stefanou-Konidaris 2020.

15 15. Hanna and Kleinman 2013; Krieger 2011.

16 16. Larson 2020, p. xxvii.

17 17. Richards 2016, p. 145.

18 18. In this book, I am going to keep a respectful distance from the writings of Michel Foucault, but I must acknowledge his insight that the disciplinary powers of the modern state were constructed around apparatuses of excluding, confining, and surveilling communicable diseases. The difficulty of bringing Foucault into such a discussion is that to do justice to his thought and engaging with the literature requires more space than is available.

19 19. Article 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights guarantees freedom of association but carves out exemptions for public health.

20 20. This refers to the title of Lisa Pisani’s 2008 book.