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SCREENS AND SCROLLS

For centuries Japanese screens, along with swords and lacquer, have been considered to excel those of any other nation. The Chinese invented screens, but by the sixteenth century the Japanese had surpassed their teachers and brought screens to a stage where the artistic aspects and technical mastery (the way the various panels were joined flexibly but lightly with paper hinges, and panel surrounds were abandoned to provide an unbroken painting surface) made them the gift of choice for highly ranked beneficiaries. Many were sent to Spain, Mexico, and Rome with delegations to please the powers that were back then. The Chinese also imported them. By their very presence, screens tend to overawe. Unlike many Japanese arts, they are painted on a formidable scale. A standard pair of six-panel screens measures 24 feet (7.3 meters) wide and provides a huge, continuous surface on which to paint heroic-sized pictures which can vie with the proportions loved by Louis XIV at Versailles. Screens, fusuma (sliding doors), hanging scrolls (kakejiku or kakemono), fans, and hand-rolled scrolls (e-makimono) have been the main vehicles for Japan's fine art for centuries. To a certain extent, the format is interchangeable. Screens or fusuma may be cut down and made into hanging scrolls if there is a change of mind or architecture, or a part gets damaged. Hand scrolls can be turned into individual prints, while fans are often pasted on screens. Josetsu's early masterpiece, "Catching a Catfish with a Gourd;' was originally a partitioning screen but is now a hanging scroll.

Fig. 26 Machi-Kanō School, "Tales of lse," six-panel screen, sumi (Indian ink) and color on paper, 17th c., 2 ft 6 in x 8 ft 6 in (76 cm x 2.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Early History of Screens

The Chinese first made screens in the third century BC. Screens came to Japan in the seventh century (the earliest reference is AD 686 in Nihon Shoki). By 756, Tōdaiji Temple in Nara stocked a hundred, on both secular and religious themes.

In the Heian era (794-1185), a distinction began to be made between Yamato-e (non-religious pictures with Japanese themes and style, such as cherries, maples, birds, and seasonal changes), and Kara-e (those inspired by China). Japanese have tended to prefer practical objects even in art. Screens and paintings on doors served the purpose of separating space-dividing a room, keeping out drafts, forming a backdrop to a religious ceremony, or partitioning off a storage space. There was little room for "art for art's saké." Art had to work!

Screens and poets were closely connected at the Heian court. Poems were composed specifically for screens and scrolls, often depicting verdant hills in the changing seasons, or genre scenes. Most Yamato-e paintings were made for the court, while religious institutions kept commissioning pictures of saints and more especially mandalas, which explain Buddhist theories in graphic ways. Although few paintings prior to the twelfth century remain, the religious hold Buddhism exerted for centuries weakened from then on, though tea ceremony addicts and followers of Zen Buddhism, with its call for precepts and pithy epithets, widened the scope of screens and scrolls, adding dogma and priestly portraits.

Structural Improvements to Screens

Murase Miyeko states in Masterpieces of Japanese Screen Painting: The American Collection that in eighth-century screens "each of the six panels was originally surrounded by a silk border of brilliant red, and the panels were tied to one another at the top and bottom with colored leather thongs or silken cords. Each panel was regarded as a separate, independent pictorial unit, as well as a component of a single decorative piece.... This ancient method of joining screen panels was gradually modified. In the early thirteenth century, panels were arranged so that the brocaded border surrounded every two panels, rather than each individual one.

"The final solution to the problem of this still unsatisfactory format appears to have been achieved in the early fourteenth century, producing the format which is still in use today. The leather or silk cords that had once linked the byōbu (i.e. screen) panels were abandoned. In their place, strips of paper were pasted, horizontally, from the front of one panel to the back of the next, forming hinges. The strips alternated with other strips of paper affixed to the panels in the reverse direction."

To explain a little more clearly, these paper hinges provide contact and stability, much like tendons in the human body. When you stretch your leg, its shape changes as the tendons are pulled straight by the muscles or compressed by others. You can see the slight ripple of the paper hinge on a screen through the covering material. The alternating direction of the hinges provides stability; if one strip of paper gets weaker, the next one above and below should still hold and give the strength and flexibility needed. The strips of paper are covered with gold or white paper where visible and the same material as the back, where invisible. The new brocade frame is visible at the top and bottom of each panel, and at the far left and far right sides of the screen. As Murase says, "this technical innovation at last made it possible to display a continuous and unified composition in a screen painting."

Fig. 27 Kyōno, "Archery Lesson" (mother teaching son), two-panel screen, sumi and color on paper, c. 1920,5 ft 7 in x 6ft (1.7 x 1.8 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Now artists could execute sweeping, uninterrupted images on the surface of both screens, achieving an unprecedented aesthetic level of room decoration. Some later artists designed dramatic, even epic subjects like towering tree trunks rising out of sight or the whole panoply of the seasons. Others concentrated on smaller-scale subjects like autumn grasses, ducks or kimono on racks.

According to Liza Hyde, "though screens originated in China, they reached their apex in Japan, perhaps because the Japanese had fewer interior walls (and mobile ones appealed to them); the Chinese liked monumental walls hung with scrolls and large, lacquered wooden screens better. In English they were known as Coromandel (as they were brought out through the Straits of Coromandel). Paper hinges would not suit these heavy pieces. Korean screens later took after the Japanese and used paper hinges."

Fig. 28 Anon.,"Cranes" (det ail). six-panel screen, sumi and color on paper with gold clouds, 18th c., 5 ft 6 1/2 in x 12ft (1.7 x 3.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 29 Kō Hōgen, 15th descendant of Kanō Motonobu, "Shishi" (lions) six-panel screen, 19th c. (Edo). 6ft x 12ft 3 in (1.8 x 3.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Gold Screens

Gilded screen painting appeared in the fourteenth century. The entire surface was covered with paper-thin sheets of gold leaf. These found good markets in neighboring countries. Hyde adds: "There was a sharp increase in the domestic demand for gold screens in the mid-fifteenth century. They were used at funeral rites in Buddhist temples, and in the homes of cultivated men as convenient backdrops against which hanging scrolls of painting and calligraphy could be displayed."

Initially, the gilded panels remained undecorated, but soon they came to be painted in ink or lavish colors. Gold flakes of varying hues were sprinkled onto gilded surfaces, and gold was used along with ink and colors. The total effect was dazzling. The Momoyama screens made at the end of the sixteenth century and early in the seventeenth were the most famous. Daimyō developed a mania for building castles with extravagant interiors featuring gold screens. These screens reflected light in dark rooms, making the rooms look warmer and also more magnificent. Masters painted bold, impressive images against shimmering gold or silver grounds. In these surroundings, monochrome ink screens created a special ambience. Hazy mist and water landscapes form a metaphysical world of concentration, meditation and poetry.

Fig. 30 Anon., "Pines, Water and Wisteria," six-panel screen, sumi and color on heavily embossed gold, late 17th c., 5 ft 8 in x 12ft 2 in (1.7 x 3.7 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 31 Anon., "Hawks," one of a pair of six-panel screens, ink and color, late 16-17th c., each 5 ft 6 in x 12ft 2 in (1.7 x 3.7 m) purchased in Japan in 1933 from Fujita by Paul Theodore Frankl and from his estate. Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 32 Anon., "Morning Glories, Vines and Grasses," six-panel screen, mineral colors on gold leaf, early 18th c., 5 ft 8 1/2 in x 12ft (1.7 m x 3.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 33a, b Seikō, "Corn Festival" (details), pair of two-panel screens, ink and color, 20th c., each 5 ft 5 1/2 in x 6ft 2 in (1.7 m x 1.9 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Common Screen Subjects

Landscapes (sansui) are the best known subjects in scrolls. You may be surprised to learn that Japan's scenery really can look like the traditional mist-shrouded hills with prominent pines portrayed in screens, especially after rain in June. The great Sesshū Tōyō (1420-1506) may have been inspired by Chinese predecessors, but such scenes also exist here (see Fig. 5).

Rakuchū rakugai. This is a variant of the above but shows genre scenes set in Kyoto or neighboring places. Clouds often divide the different scenes and localities-a little mystifying until you understand the convention.

Four seasons (shiki). The seasons typical of Kyoto were taken as true of all Japan and portrayed in pairs or fours: spring/summer on one and autumn/winter on the other.

Flower and bird (kachō) combinations. These are also extremely popular as the images are pretty and contain no harshness. Traditional groupings are the pine, bamboo, and flowering plum (shōchikubai), sparrows in a bamboo grove, or Mt Fuji, a hawk, and eggplant (the three best dreams of the New Year). Cranes and turtles imply long life. Birds of prey suggest aggressiveness. Graceful flowers like peonies have felicitous associations with feminine beauty and aristocracy. Standing pines and clinging wisteria metaphorically suggest men and women together.

Tagasode. Literally "whose clothes;' these depict kimono on an ikō or kimono rack, with other familiar clothes or objects, such as cages, parrots, or braziers perfuming sleeves (Fig. 49a, b).

Mythical or traditional themes. The Seven Lucky Gods, heroes such as Benkei and Yoshitsune fighting on Kyoto's Gojō Bridge, or the battle between two famous women's carts (reflecting deep jealousy and disappointed love), are areas where a knowledge of Japanese history, myth, and religion makes a big difference to one's appreciation of a screen.

Religious motifs. Common are pictures of temples, statues of Kan'non, and raigō or pictures welcoming believers into the Western Paradise (these relieved the suffering of those about to die, as they were reassured that a place in heaven awaited them).

Zen images. These usually depict hairy or weird figures of great élan and expressiveness, such as Daruma, the inseparable smiling pair of Kanzan and Jittoku, or ascetics. Some have a cartoon-like quality or represent kabuki figures. I suspect these images face instantaneous love or loathing, unlike other forms.

Military scenes. Many were made to urge boys to grow up into brave soldiers and were exhibited on the former Boys' Day (May 5th). At the time of the Sino-Japanese (1894-5) and Russo-Japanese Wars (1904-5), and during the military period before and during World War II, there was a resurgence of patriotism expressed in many ways.

Domestic scenes. Views of people at a tea house, scholars in a garden, or Chinese boys (karako) with funny shaved heads, perhaps chasing butterflies, are common.

Portraits. These are rare compared to the West, though those of priests are commoner. Often posthumous, they remind followers of his teachings. The tradition requires typical and idealistic images, not realistic portraits (see Fig. 7).

Fig. 34 Kanō Tangen, "Flower Cart with Large Wheels," six-panel screen, colors on paper, mid- late 19th c., 5 ft 8 in x 12 ft (1.7 x 3.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 35 Kanō Tanshin, "Double Flower Carts," with baskets and various flowers, six-panel screen, gold background, ca. 1800,5 ft 8 in x 12ft 5 in (1.7 x 3.8 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 36 Oka Shumboku (1680-1763), "Flower Cart with Children," left-hand of pair of six-panel screens, early 18th c., each 5 ft 9 in x 12ft (1.7 m x 3.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Screens with Calligraphy

Works with nothing but writing are perhaps the hardest to get to like, but are also very exotic as they are entirely outside Westerners' cultural realm. They are abundant and cheaper than other subjects (many are still made for monks and the lay equivalent-corporate warriors). If you buy one, you really should know roughly what it says, otherwise people will dismiss you as an airhead (like Japanese girls who wear T-shirts inscribed with incomprehensible English, French, or Italian phrases-which they never query but are considered "cute" or, worse, "fashionable").

There are three main hands or scripts: sōsho or "running hand" is the most attractive to me, with its graceful curves and pace (but is barely legible to modern Japanese unless trained as calligraphers). The kaisho style has very square letters and is thus easier to read, but it is angular and ungraceful, while gyōsho lies halfway between. The poems chosen may have no special meaning for you but some knowledge is vital for appreciation, even if this is hard to come by. Calligraphy teachers and scholars are scarce.

However, calligraphy is a widely practiced art. Innumerable exhibitions are held annually with different groups favoring one syllabary, such as hiragana, a seasonal theme, or literary topic. From an early age, teachers or parents urge schoolchildren to make their kakizome or first calligraphy of the year in early January. Since all kanji are expected to fit into the same space, however few or many strokes they have, this provides a lifelong introduction to space, balance, and perspective. I believe learning kanji contributes to the lasting interest in cartoons and animation and widespread visual skill. Little four- or five-character Zen statements are most suitable as starters. Shortly after I came to Japan, a friend gave me a scroll done by her mother. It says shikai shunpū, "four seas; a spring wind." Four seas implies all the seas and so the whole world, while a spring wind suggests the benefits of peace and prosperity. This charming scroll endeared her and the country to me. Mieko is still a good friend, so her spring wind has worked wonders.

Visitors to meeting or reception rooms at Japanese companies, or Tea people, will have the opportunity to see many screens and scrolls, some exhorting greater effort and others extolling the Way.

Screen Sizes

Folding screens (byōbu) are large, flexible decorative items which were often the central point of aesthetic attraction in a palace, temple, or home. They helped illuminate a room by reflecting light, and served to divide space. For example, the women's quarters could be separated from the men's, the owner's from the servants'. They were also carried by servants to form a windbreak at picnics.

When we read about the history of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Japan, we are struck by how much attention was paid by the rulers and sub-rulers to having the best painters do the most magnificent screen paintings, thus creating the aura that still surrounds screens. The defenses and imposing lines of their castles were important, but the aesthetic content mattered just as much in winning plaudits from society. This has left an incredible legacy of beautiful pieces by artists in the Kanō line (painters to the court for generations), Tosa studio painters, and many others who did not necessarily sign their work, especially if it was for a grandee, but had learned in the same ateliers.

Fig. 37 Anon.,"Winter Scenes with Birds," left hand of pair of six-panel screens, colors on paper, 18th c., each 5 ft 8 in x 12ft (1.7m x 3.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 38 Anon.,"Birds," six-panel screen, mineral colors on paper, 18th c., 20 in x 126 in (50 x 320 cm). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Artists in China, Korea, and Japan normally produced pairs of six-fold screens. In Japan, these were roughly the height of a man, but some were only 12 inches (30 cm) high and might have only two panels if made to decorate a small space or to hide something. Tea people often used smaller screens in the reduced confines of tea houses and more especially near the corner where tea was made. A wooden frame (often lacquered) was covered with layers of paper and the folds joined together. The painting was done on silk applied to this base. Thin squares of gold and silver foil were often applied round the design to make it look more sumptuous.

This book is aimed at those with the interest and financial capacity to occasionally splurge on nice pieces. Readers should realize that screens worth having for a special place in their home are not likely to be low-priced.

A panel nearly 6 feet (1.8 meters) high and 18 inches (46 cm) wide is already large so that when you think that an artist had twelve panels to fill, painting a pair of screens was clearly a major undertaking and an opportunity to make a statement. Historical masterpieces may be beyond the means of the average collector (many are already in museums), but you can see still wonderful examples at high-class dealers-and then you start saving! The great artists in the genre are mentioned in the chapter on Japan's Art Heritage while the photographs here show some of the wide variety of wonderful pieces still available.

Not all screens are old (some are still made today) and the price differs greatly between works by famous artists (many thousands of dollars) and workshops where very ordinary commercial painting is done (a few zeros); those works are not great art. Indeed, some screens use printed designs, rather like printed wallpaper. These should be cheap, as Japanese prefer not to buy them.

The condition of a screen matters a great deal. If the painting itself is undamaged, then other problems such as holes in the backing paper or a frame that needs repairing or refinishing can be fixed fairly easily in Japan and art centers in London, New York, and Los Angeles, though it does have a cost.

I should advise you never to buy a screen with serious damage to the front (the back matters less since it is usually unseen) as the repair bill will be unjustifiably high, unless the artist is well known or the screen has great artistic or historical value. However, if the individual panels of a screen appeal, then the sky is the limit.

Most Westerners prefer single screens, fortunately, as they are likely to cost less! The purist prefers pairs, especially if they come with a box, as it means they are easier to store, transport, and authenticate. They also appeal for their sense of completeness.

Common is a kind of patchwork screen with attached old scrolls or fans. They can be very attractive. A Swiss neighbor once bought such a screen and a small part was signed Kanō Tanyū, the famous artist (1602-74). Before it was exported, customs officials became agitated about losing a national treasure until an expert assured them it was a fake and the fan dated from the nineteenth century! It was nevertheless very decorative.

Westerners often raise screens, especially smaller ones, by mounting them on legs or placing them flat against the wall on mounts. This allows the screens to be decorations, not furniture, and hence they take up no floor space. They may fit in better with the interior too and experience less wear and tear at the bottom, from being moved around or tripped on.

Fusuma are sliding doors to a Westerner. In this sense, they are not fixed and can be taken out and moved elsewhere at any time. Paintings on them may get rubbed by other doors sliding against them and so their condition can deteriorate badly. They are scarcely painted today, except to replace old doors on temples or shrines. Nice images on silk or paper are often transferred to other media. They are solid, heavy doors and I doubt if they are collectible.

Fig. 39 Anon.,"Two Bears amongst Pine Trees and Water," six-panel screen, late 19th c.,5 ft 7 1/2 in x 12ft 2 in (1.7 x 3.7 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 40 Kane School, "Flower Carts," left-hand of pair of six-panel screens, unsigned, ink, color, gofun, and gold, 17th c., each 5 ft 6 in x 12 ft 4 1/2 in (1.7 x 3.8 m), purchased by French diplomat in Japan in 1949. Screens depict gosho gurumo (courtiers' carriages) laden with seasonal flowers (right: bush clover, hydrangea, dianthus, gentian, freesia, peony, chrysanthemum, morning glory; left: striped bamboo with blue blooms, camellia, chrysanthemum, hibiscus, wisteria, iris, peony, pinks) in porcelain, pottery, bamboo, wicker, and wood vessels. Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig.41 Anon.,"Emperor Xuan-Zong of T'ang Dynasty" (with favorite consort Yang Gui-fei and ladies-in-waiting divided into two camps, fighting with flowers), six-panel screen, ink and color on paper, 18th c., 6ft x 12ft (1.8 x 3.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 42 Anon., "Chrysanthemums," two-panel screen, gold leaf, raised flowers, early 17th c., 6 ft x 5 ft 7 in (1.8 x 1.7 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 43 Rim pa School,"Fiowers in Landscape with Fence,"two-pa nel screen, color on paper, early 18th c., 4 ft 5 in x 4 ft 7 in (1.3 x 1.4 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Hanging Scrolls (Kakejiku or Kakemono)

The fixed frame picture of the West, hung for decades on the same wall, was unknown to the Orient where hanging scrolls (kakejiku or kakemono) could be rolled up and easily stored away. The designs were painted or drawn on silk or paper laid on paper. At the heavy bottom end were rollers made of ivory, wood, or porcelain. Additional little weights were placed on each end to keep the scroll from moving too much if there was a draft. At the top there were two flaps (futai) which hung down and strings from each side going up to the hanging cord. Matching paper and surrounds play a great role in bringing out the qualities of a scroll-not a job for beginners.

Traditional Japanese paintings (nihonga) use mineral pigments, unlike the oil-based pigments of the West. This means that they are dreamier and cleaner in a way. They can stand being rolled up and taken out now and then (quite often, in fact), but of course their condition is not improved by it and it should be done with great care. Some scrolls get framed nowadays, as in the West, to prevent damage to the paint or Indian ink, but most scrolls in antiquarian quarters are rolled as in the past and stored in a box, perhaps within another if particularly cherished. There is likely to be an inscription (on the inner or outer) box saying what kind of work it is and by whom, as this saves getting it out each time to check in a store or private storehouse. In cheaper stores, they are hung in rows.

Since about 1600, the most cherished place for a scroll was the tokonoma, a ceremonial alcove placed slightly off-center in important rooms. Usually on the left, it is set aside for beauty, not utility, like a mantelpiece in the West. (You might not believe that statement in certain ryokan and minshuku (inns) where the tokonoma gets stuffed with televisions, telephones, or safes.) The alcove may hold a seasonal flower arrangement and hanging scroll. The important guest will always be seated in front of it, the place of honor.

Scrolls were changed frequently to suit the season, mood, or occasion-to honor a special guest, for example, or to suit the flowers in a room. After the war, when Japanese wages were low, there was a brisk demand from American soldiers for decorative scrolls, mainly of kimonoed women, on strips of silk not made into formal pieces or signed. These were taken home and spread widely. They are still quite cheap and make pleasant gifts but are not exactly art either, as they were mass-produced.

An important distinction is made between paintings on silk (kempon) and those on much less expensive and more fragile paper. Remounting silk is feasible so it has a potentially longer life. A work's life is determined by the backing paper and mount, as well as by its treatment. Another drastic gap is between original and printed works- therefore lower-priced, still desirable for those not on six-figure incomes.

Hand Scrolls (E-maki or E-makimono)

Hand scrolls (e-maki) are attached to two wooden rollers which you roll in your hands from right to left, as that is how Chinese and Japanese were long written: vertical columns run from right to left. (Nowadays, fiction and literary works such as criticism are usually still written like that, as well as cartoon books, but textbooks and how-to type books read like Western books, from left to right; surprisingly the Chinese have taken to it for everything).

You unroll the left-hand roller as you roll up the right-hand roller; images and text come in from the left. They may be 50 feet (16 meters) long or much shorter. Because of their length, they can tell a long story in a pictorial or even cartoon style.

Fig. 44 Anon., "Deer," six-panel screen, gold leaf, mineral colors, 18th c., 5 ft 6 in x 8 ft (1.7 x 2.4 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig.45 Anon.,"Fans and Waves," six-panel screen, color on paper, early 18th c., 5 ft 3 in x 11 ft 8 in (1.6 x 3.6 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 46 Anon., "Haw ks with Baby Chicks," six-panel screen, color on paper, 18th c., 54ft 9 1/2 in x 9ft 2 in (16.7 x 2.8 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 47 Anon., but connected to Imperial family because of jewel-like bronze corners and backing paper with imperial crest in gold,"Emperor's Garden, "six-panel screen, sumi and colors with gold leaf on paper, early 17th C., 5ft 11 in X 12ft 6 in (1.8 X 3.8 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 48 Anon.,"Tales of Genji," scenes from five chapters of classic Heian period novel, six-panel screen, ink, color, and gold on paper, 5 ft 7 in x 12 ft 31 /2 in (1.7 x 3.8 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 49 a, b Ogawa Ukō (1911 -), "Tagasode and Woman," pair of two-panel screens, painting and textile, ca. 18th c., each 5 ft 8 1/2 in x 6ft 2 in (1.7 x 1.9 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 50 Minakami Taisei, Fukuoka artist (d. 1950s), screen on wall of Consul-General David Pabst's living room, Nishinomiya, 11 ft (3.3 m).

Westerners may see erotic calendars-one picture for each month of the year, characterized by more or fewer clothes on the naked-ish bodies, and the appearance of fans or a brazier as the seasons change. The couple remains the same: the male tanned, the female white. As explained in the chapter on ukiyo-e and prints, erotic images are common, so decisions about children and appropriate placing come up.

Few hand scrolls have been made during the last hundred years, so they are becoming rarer. This may be linked to utility in the multimedia age. They are too much of a throwback to an earlier age to order in quantity. The painting can be very fine but the quality of the whole may decline with use, so it is important to check carefully. Another aspect to consider is utility or display: where and how? It is common to find hand scrolls that have been chopped up into the constituent images for easier sale or for displaying flat, rather than in a roll.

Collecting Screens and Scrolls

There is no surer way of bringing a touch of the exotic Orient into your home than putting up a screen or scroll. Automatically visitors' eyes move that way and questions form which could electrify an evening. In Japan's long art history, thousands of artists and scholars have made attractive pictures and it is silly to say that one should collect this or that artist. It makes sense to find out first if you like the field at all by looking around at museums, galleries, and friends' houses before spending any money. If you find they appeal after you get used to them, then go around more galleries and museums to find out in which direction your interests lie.

Prices for the Kanō school studio master, or famous modern artists like Uemura Shōen, have many zeros (like Impressionist or Cubist artists). The prices involved and the proposed position and decor in a room decide whether you want to splurge. On the other hand, older hanging scrolls by unknown artists are extremely cheap-perhaps $100-200 for "nameless" scrolls in so-so condition in Japan. This is, in fact, much less than the new materials cost.

The changes in Japan's housing, away from large communal houses to nuclear family "mansions" (with no room to swing a cat, let alone display a screen), mean that there are too many so-so scrolls or screens and hence they go for low prices compared with their intrinsic worth, or indeed replacement cost. The market for traditional art shapes is poor, and so for the last hundred years a lot of innovation has taken place in other "shapes;" this is covered towards the end of the print chapter.

Warning Advice

The photographs in this chapter are of excellent screens and scrolls but be aware that forgery occurs, particularly with "famous" names like Yokoyama Taikan (1868-1958); if you counted up how many pieces he "signed," he would have been working day and night for 1,000 years and still be producing long after his death! Similarly, I was once offered a print signed by the great nearly blind print artist Munakata Shikō (1903-75). Inquisitive, I was quoted ¥40,000. I said I thought it was fake and offered him ¥2,000 ($18) for fun. He took it gratefully and now I am stuck with a dubious print.

If you become seriously interested in screens or scrolls, you deserve a serious partner, so should get close to a famous dealer who has an interest in guarding unsullied her/his reputation and so will respect you for asking for the best.

Fig. 51 "Sakyamuni Shaka Rising from the Gold Coffin," hanging scroll, color on silk, 11th c., 5 ft 3 in x 7ft 5 in (1.6 x 2.3 m), National Treasure, Kyoto National Museum. When Shaka's mother, Maya, hurried down from heaven crying, Shaka lifted the coffin lid, told her of the frailty of life and got back in. His body radiates thousands of rays, each holding thousands of Buddhas at his divine resurrection. Photo courtesy Kyoto National Museum.

Fig. 52 "Amida Coming over the Mountain," hanging scroll, color on silk, 13th c., 4ft x 2ft 6 in (1.2 x 0.7 m). National Treasure, Kyoto National Museum. Unusually, Amida looks half to the left, right hand up, left hand down. Photo courtesy Kyoto National Museum.

Avoid printed pieces if you are hoping to make money eventually. They will never become expensive: if they did, somebody would print a few thousand more. If you want to decorate a room, they are fine and cheaper than originals and may indeed be by famous artists-originally!

Paper and silk were both used for making scrolls and screens. Paper is cheaper but is less resistant to tearing. The condition of a screen or scroll is absolutely vital because re-backing or extensive restoration can cost major sums of money. A Pittsburgh friend had a two-panel screen done up in Japan for $700. Before leaving the country, he realized that taking it back to the US would cost too much and he had the screen auctioned. He received just a third of the cost of the remounting alone.

A screen or scroll should have no obvious damage or dirty marks. The condition of the paper on the back is not so important, as changing that is not dear and can be done later. Besides, guests will not normally see it. People who love paper will find that scrolls are backed by a fantastic array of different papers.

Washi has an unrivalled place in the paper world, being strong and of infinite variety. (See Sukey Hughes' comprehensive book on the subject.) I have bought several cheap scrolls for the paper alone! Though less paper is made by hand these days, there are still villages like Kurodani or Najio which depend on it for their livelihood.

Fig. 53 Itō Jakuchū (1716-1800), "Cocks and Hens," fusuma painting, 1790, detail from set of nine wall panels formerly in Kai-hō-ji, Fushimi, Kyoto. Photo courtesy Kyoto National Museum.

Fig. 54 "Crows on a Plum Branch" (detail), six door panels attributed to Unkoku Tog an (1547-1618), colors and gold leaf on paper, each 5 ft 4 in x 5 ft 1 in (1.6 x 1.5 m). Panels originally at Najima Castle (built 1588-9). Typical Momoyama composition of huge plum with crows in the snow. Photo courtesy Kyoto National Museum.

Fig. 55 Crane designs, lower detail from collection of calligraphy by Hon'ami Kōetsu and painting by Tawaraya Sōtatsu, hand scroll, ink and paper, 17th c., 1 ft 11 in x 44ft 5 in (58 cm x 13.6 m), extraordinary elegance. Photo courtesy Kyoto National Museum.

Fig. 56 Kokin Wakashū (love poem) calligraphy, hand scroll, ink on decorated paper, 11th c., 6 1/2 in x 8 ft (16 cm x 2.4 m), attributed to Ono no Tōfū (894-966), the great calligrapher, but in the collection of Hon'ami, Kyoto National Museum. Most celebrated meibutsu-gire (famous fragment). Photo courtesy Kyoto National Museum.

Choosing Screens and Scrolls

Choosing furniture has certain practical aspects, such as do the drawers hold enough or will it fit into a particular space? Nonutilitarian art objects require different criteria.

First impressions are important. As dealer Sōbian of Kyoto says, "Does it hit you in the eyes?" The movement of the paint brush (esuji) is important. For example, the susuki (eulalia or pampas grass) should not look flaccid but stand erect. Jot down the artist's name, period, and condition, and if it is an original piece or a print, or if it has been repaired. "The name may not matter to you now, but it is vital for possible resale-and for chatting to guests."

Think how the screen or scroll will go with the color of your sofa or with the curtains. In Japan, a conscientious dealer may take a screen or scroll to a client's house if he is strongly interested. Some dealers do not like to do this, as it is time-consuming and may cause wear and tear. Also ask about "after care."

The air-conditioning of some Westerners' houses is direct and may tear screens or stain scrolls. Insist that the seller be willing to help with little repairs later if affected by air-conditioning.

Many Westerners like kachō (stilllifes of flowers and birds). Those who tire of them, purchase simple designs of the moon or sun. Karako (Chinese boys) are not popular among Westerners (too cute perhaps?). Lawyers seem to like hawks and tigers, as their strong or fierce looks suggest winning lawsuits, says Sōbian.

Galleries in capitals tend to be more expensive than elsewhere but inevitably they have better works and the dealers provide much more information; if they do, purchasing there is a good bet.

A sense of season permeates the designs on hanging scrolls, but less so screens. When you first buy a scroll, you should purchase a work you like, without worrying about its season. Few are devoid of season. Flowers are inevitably seasonal. If you buy several hanging scrolls, you may develop a sense of season. If you do, you should think carefully about the seasonal element when making later purchases. But don't be a toady. Become an Antipodean!

Fig. 57 Hokusai (1760-1849),"Shell Gathering," hanging scroll, color on silk, early 19th c., 1 ft 8 in x 2ft 8 in (50 x 81 cm). Photo courtesy Osaka Municipal Museum of Art.

Genuineness

It would take a few volumes to describe what could happen with art. Here I shall mention a few precautions, starting with "use your head" and "use your eyes." Look at the ends and back of the scroll or screen you are considering buying. If the dealer says a piece is very old and there is no evidence of wear, something is amiss. If a scroll has been kept very carefully in a box within a box and only taken out once a year, it may look almost new, but consider if it is likely that you can buy such a treasure if low-priced-it belonged to a rich man or connoisseur. If the amount of visible wear agrees with the age mentioned by the dealer, then things look better.

A screen stands on the ground and gets pushed open and shut, or to change its shape. This friction should be visible, even if the base of the screen is protected by metal plates on the corners. No wear, no age. In fact, age is not necessary. A new screen can be very nice and easier to fit into Western surroundings, but if the seller insists that it is old and unrepaired, then something is wrong and you may not trust him/her.

Fig. 58 Kansai Mori Koshuku (1814-94), figure, probably Yang Gui-fei, mistress of Emperor Ming Huang, late autumn, hanging scroll, 1871,7 ft 4 in x 2ft 8 in (2.2 m x 81 cm). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.

Fig. 59 Sakai Dōitsu,"Yūgao" (bottle gourds). hanging scroll, silk on paper, 1870-90, 5 ft 5 in x 1 ft 5 in (1.7 m x 43 cm). Sakai Dōitsu was a pupil of the famous Sakai Hōitsu of the Rimpa School. Both were good at kachō (flowers and birds). Rimpa painters liked the tarashikomi technique used here where another pigment is added while the previous pigment is not yet dry, so that colors run and generate unique colors. Photo courtesy Gallery Sōbian.

Fig. 60 Mio Goseki,"Tora" (tiger), hanging scroll, Meiji era, 6 ft 9 in x 1 ft 9 in (2.1 m x 53 cm). Mio Goseki was a pupil of Ōhashi Suiseki. Both excelled at tiger pictures. Photo courtesy Gallery Sōbian.

Fig. 61 Uchida Gozan, "Chūshū getsurin" (harvest moon), hanging scroll, Meiji era, 6 ft 6 in x 1 ft 8 in (2m x51 cm). The design is interesting as the moon is depicted by delicate light and dark areas of sumi. Photo courtesy Gallery Sōbian.

Fig. 62 Takenaka Kidō, "Hotaru" (fireflies) and summer grasses, hanging scroll, Meiji era, 6ft 4 in x 1 ft 8 in (1.9 m x 51 cm). Kidō is not so famous but fireflies are popular because their lifetime is so short: a picture of them captures a moment. Photo courtesy Gallery Sōbian.

Traditionally, screens and scrolls were boxed. If that box is a tomobako, or accompanying box, there may well be a name, date and signature. If these details do not match those on the work, the work should sell for less than otherwise. The signature on some works has been added later and this completely changes society's valuation. English readers are unlikely to ever get to the stage of really knowing signatures, but they can look at materials and check that they look right.

Screens and scrolls fit into Western rooms only after thought. They are a diadem of Japanese civilization and often examples of great art, so it is worth thinking creatively. If you buy what an expert or two also think has aesthetic value and is in good condition, then it will become a family heirloom, not an Enron or WorldCom. stock certificate.

Fig. 63 Ema (horse votive tablet), commemorative funeral painting on wood, 2ft 9 in x 4ft 8 1/2 in (84 cm x 1.4 m). Photo courtesy Liza Hyde.