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There is an abundance of studies which compare FL reading and writing skills in IM and mainstream foreign language programs. The results are unambiguous: IM students (independent of the type of IM program, i.e., early or late, full or partial) outperform comparable non-IM peers in regular programs in any kind of FL language test (e.g., Genesee, 2004; Pérez-Cañado, 2012; Wesche, 2002).

Regarding the development of FL reading skills by majority language children in IM programs in Germany, Zaunbauer et al. (2012) reported that at the end of grade 4, immersion students obtained higher scores in tests on English reading fluency and comprehension than their peers in mainstream programs. Steinlen & Piske (2018a), who examined 136 fourth graders in a regular and a partial IM program, reported similar results. Not surprisingly, the two groups differed with respect to their English reading and writing skills, with the partial IM students being at level A2/B1 for English reading, and the students in the regular program at level A1. Some students in Zaunbauer et al. (2012) even scored within the range of native-speaker norms (see also Nold et al., 2008 for ninth graders in bilingual programs in Germany). Such native-like reading skills may emerge during the fourth year of immersion teaching but, as other authors noted, not earlier than that (e.g., Cashion & Eagan, 1990; Geva & Clifton 1994; Malicky, Fagan & Norman, 1988; Möller et al., 2017; see also Genesee & Jared, 2008 for more details). In general, the results for IM programs in Germany agree well with findings reported for French IM programs in Canada (e.g., Genesee, 1978; Genesee & Jared, 2008; Lambert & Tucker, 1972; Swain & Lapkin, 1982).

FL reading and writing skills in less intensive bilingual elementary school programs were studied by Böttger & Müller (2020). 430 students in grade 4 completed an adapted version of the Cambridge English Test for Young Learners (Flyers & Movers), which assessed reading comprehension and writing skills in combined tasks. The findings indicated that “almost all students reach the language competence level A1 and many of them can even reach A2 level in different areas” (p. 40, own translation), although additional information (e.g., on the exact number of students reaching different levels and why; or on separate results for reading and writing) is, unfortunately, not provided.

There is a general lack of studies for the elementary school context in Germany and elsewhere with respect to children’s writing skills in the target language. Many studies conducted in Germany are rather exploratory and do not include any statistical analyses (e.g., Böttger & Müller, 2020; Burmeister, 2010; Rymarczyk, 2010). Steinlen (2018b) and Steinlen & Piske (2018a, 2020) compared English writing skills by 136 fourth graders who either attended a regular or a partial IM program. They reported that students in regular programs were at level A1, whereas students in a partial IM program were at level A2, with significant differences between the groups, even when controlling for socio-economic status, family language and cognitive ability.

Outside of Germany, it has also been shown that IM students generally outperform their peers in mainstream programs (e.g., Bae, 2007; Genesee, 1987, 2004; Wesche, 2002). Nevertheless, native-like writing skills in the FL as measured in terms of fluency, complexity (both lexical and grammatical), and accuracy are usually not achieved in IM programs (e.g., Wesche, 2002). IM students apparently produce similar errors in FL writing as their peers in mainstream programs (e.g., with respect to L1 transfer, e.g., Burmeister, 2010); however, their texts are longer and more complex in structure and wording (e.g., Bae, 2007; Rymarczyk, 2010; Swain, 1975). Most studies in this context have, however, been carried out with secondary school students (e.g., Nold et al., 2008; Zydatiss, 2009, for Germany; Bulon, Hendrik, Meunier & Van Goethem, 2017 for Belgium; Lyster, 2007; Swain & Lapkin, 1995 for Canada; Roquet & Pérez-Vidal, 2017 for Spain) with a focus on longer texts as well as on the use of grammatical structure and idiomatic and pragmatic expressions.

In general, the results strongly indicate that FL literacy skills develop particularly well in IM programs. This is probably due to the fact that a much higher number of writing activities are carried out in FL subject lessons than in regular FL lessons; and that the students not only receive more written input, but also have to produce more written output. Chapter 7 will point out many activities that are currently employed in FL bilingual (but also in regular FL) classrooms to foster FL literacy skills.