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So far, a within-group comparison of FL reading and writing skills in bilingual programs with different FL intensity has not been carried out in Germany. For Canada, such a comparison included only immersion programs with different intensity. Comparing total vs. partial IM (i.e., 50/50) programs with an early start, the findings demonstrated that the gains (e.g., in reading) vis-a-vis early total IM will be lower, or roughly commensurate with the relative total time spent in the FL (Wesche, 2002). Late-starting low-intensity bilingual programs (i.e., 20/80 programs) may be quite successful in enhancing FL English proficiency of academically-inclined (Gymnasium) students (Wesche, 2002; see also Burmeister & Daniel, 2002; Wode, 1995, 2009). Evidence for 20/80 programs with an early start is, unfortunately, scarce. The findings of smaller-scale studies indicate improvement in FL learning (regarding FL reading, writing, grammar and vocabulary comprehension) from grade 1 to 4, but not always significant differences from year to year (e.g., Böttger & Müller, 2020; Couve et al., 2016; Steinlen & Gerdes, 2015).

There seem to be very few studies which compared low vs. high FL intensity programs, and these either relate to FL receptive vocabulary of elementary school children or to older learners. For example, Couve et al. (2016) compared 61 students in three different bilingual classes in Germany and assessed their performance for English receptive vocabulary, using the British English Vocabulary Scale. The students, who were tested in grade 1 and 2 (at T1 and T2), attended one of three programs where either 20%, 25% or 30-40% of the teaching time were conducted in English. The results yielded significant differences between the 25% and the 30-40% program and between the 20% and the 30-40% program but not between the 20% and the 25% program at both T1 and T2. Similarly, in terms of FL vocabulary gains within a year, significant differences between T1 and T2 were found for the 25% and the 30-40% program but not for the 20% program. Couve et al. (2016) attributed these group differences to class composition, with an uneven distribution of children in the three classes who either had previous knowledge of the target language and/or higher metalinguistic awareness due to a multilingual background.

Turning to older learners in different IM programs, Reeder, Buntain & Takakuwa (1999) examined almost 80 English students in grade 6, who attended either a 50/50 or an 80/20 French IM program in Canada. They were tested on FL French reading as well as on descriptive and narrative French writing. The results indicated significant between-group differences for French reading and narrative writing (but not for French descriptive writing), thus underscoring the positive effect of FL intensity for the development of FL literacy skills.

In sum, studies on bilingual programs indicated a) that students’ L1 reading and writing skills develop age-appropriately and b) that FL competence in reading and writing depends on the intensity of the FL program on the one hand and on the start of the FL program on the other hand.