Читать книгу Using Japanese Slang - Anne Kasschau - Страница 10

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Discriminatory Language

(sabetsu yōgo)

Buraku-Related (buraku kanren)

As in the U.S., discriminatory language in Japan is a major social issue. In the past 20 years or so, there has been extensive kotoba-gari (word hunting) by the Buraku Kaihō Dōmei (Buraku Liberation League, or BLL). Buraku literally means a community in a small village, or a hamlet, but in today's Japan it means a population that has historically suffered social and economic discrimination. The BLL systematically examines newspaper and magazine articles, radio and TV broadcasts, movies, and literary publications for so-called forbidden words, and, if it finds them, issue a kyudan (violent censure or protest by a group) even if the publication, film, or broadcast as a whole is against discrimination.

Just like the political correctness (PC) movement in the United States, the anti-discrimination efforts of the BLL have gone a bit too far in many people's opinions. As a result, it is not gaining the whole-hearted support of the Japanese people. Nevertheless, the mass media in Japan have been overwhelmed by the BLL's strident campaign and now refrain from using many words that have been identified by the organization as being discriminatory.

In September of 1990, The Enigma of Japanese Power by well-known journalist Karel van Wolferen was censured; subsequently, van Wolferen appeared in a public debate with the BLL at the Foreign Correspondents' Club of Japan. In his book, van Wolferen wrote that the BLL preferred to threaten the mass media rather than undertake legal procedures, and that this strategy had proven effective.

He was correct. While the media overall had been sympathetic to the plight of the burakumin (those suffering discrimination), the BLL still claimed that "nobody except the person whose own foot was stepped on could really feel the pain." In so doing, they wrung out further concessions. More recently, as a result of "self-censorship" on the part of the publisher, a portion related to buraku was cut from the Japanese translation of the best-selling book Rising Sun written by Michael Crichton.

In less enlightened days, burakumin were simply ignored by the rest of Japan. Their plight was very much like the untouchables of India. Their residential areas were confined to the worst parts of the village or town, and only occupations regarded as mean or filthy were allocated to them. Marriage with other villagers outside the buraku group was forbidden, and there were many other similar regulations imposed to keep burakumin "in their place."

Other derogatory expressions for burakumin included eta (untouchables), hinin (literally, not human beings; this refers to people who were engaged in the cremation and burial of the dead), and yotsu (four). Yotsu came from the fact that it was burakumin who butchered four-footed animals such as cattle and pigs and processed their various components into meat, leather, and so on. Japanese Buddhism has traditionally regarded the killing of animals as unclean.

In 1969 the "Special Measures on Enterprises Regarding Dōwa" was enacted by the Japanese government (dōwa is an acceptable term for buraku). Since then the term dōwa mondai (mondai is problem) instead of buraku mondai has been used. A large amount of tax money has been put into aid for the dōwa, helping them with affordable housing, financial aid for education, and job opportunities. As a result, institutionalized discrimination against them has just about disappeared, but prejudice still strongly lingers in the minds of many Japanese.

In addition to the BLL, organizations representing the handicapped and lowly-regarded occupations have also participated in kotoba-gari. This has resulted in self-censorship by the mass media, through the use of iikaeshū (literally, glossary of word-changing; here, a style book that lists forbidden expressions). Thus, most of the words introduced below cannot be used by the media any more and should be used very carefully by individuals.

Mental and Physical Handicaps

(shinshōsha kanren)

In 1981, the International Year of the Handicapped, the Japanese government replaced the words mekura (blind), tsunbo (deaf), oshi (deaf-mute), katawa and fugu (deformed), and bikko and chinba (lame) with expressions that were more acceptable to those affected. The trend to ban discriminatory words comes from the desire of the handicapped, who have long been victims of prejudice, to have a chance at normal lives and equal opportunities.

When this kind of word-hunting goes to excess, however, it can have absurd results. Some years ago, for example, a Japanese record company wanted to release a song titled "Love Is Blind." The only suitable Japanese equivalent they could find for this title was the direct translation Koi no Mekura. Because mekura had been deemed inappropriate, the firm withheld its release for several years.

Mekura comes from the simple expression me ga kurai (the eyes are dark). As it is now considered contemptuous and discriminatory, new expressions have been coined, such as me no fujiyū-na hito (a person with impaired vision), me ga mienai hito (a person whose eyes cannot see), and mōjin and mōmoku, which come from blind person and blindness, respectively. Mekuraban (literally, blind approval; figuratively, to rubber stamp) has also become unacceptable.

In the early 70s, the former governor of Tokyo, Ryokichi Minobe, coined the word o-mekura-san (literally, my poor dear blind people). Even though Minobe was known for his compassion and welfare policies, the term was taken by the people it describes as patronizing. Thus he was forced to resort to more acceptable expressions, such as shiryoku shōgaisha (eyesight-handicapped person). The most acceptable terms and those commonly used today in the mass media are me no mienai hito and me ga fujiyū-na hito.

A related term is akimekura (illiterate), now banned from media usage as well. An earlier substitute, monmō (mon is literature or text, and mō is blindness or ignorance) has been abandoned in favor of the less offensive and very difficult to pronounce hi-shikijisha (a person unable to decipher words).

As for deafness, tsunbo has been replaced by rōsha (deaf person) and chōryoku shōgaisha (listening impaired person). But again, the most acceptable expressions are mimi no kikoenai hito (a person whose ears cannot hear) and mimi ga fujiyū-na hito (a person with impaired hearing).

For speech-impairment, oshi was replaced by asha (deaf-mute), and then by kuchi ga kikenai hito (kikenai is the negative form of the verb kiku, meaning to work or be effective). Kuchi no fujiyū-na hito is also acceptable. Oshi de tsunbo (deaf and mute) was replaced by the slightly more acceptable ro-asha (deaf and dumb person), and then by mimi to kuchi ga fujiyū-na hito.

Domori is stutter or, by extension, a stutterer. Some feel that domori is a discriminatory word, and Japanese newspapers often prefer the terms kitsuonsha (stammering person) and shita (tongue) no fujiyū-na hito. Since domori is not definitely discriminatory, however, it is often used as is. There is no substitute for the verb domoru (to stutter). But some people prefer the expression shita ga nameraka de nai (the tongue is not smooth).

Katawa and fugu, in the war of words, first became shintai shōgaisha (literally, bodily-handicapped person), which can be shortened to shinshōsha, and then the more acceptable karada no fujiyū-na hito. Also in this group, the words chinba (cripple), bikko (lame person), and izari (someone crippled in both legs) have all become ashi ga fujiyū-na hito.

Tenashi and tenbō (handless) became katate (one-handed), then te ga fujiyū-na hito and te ga nai hito. The term katateochi (partiality or one-sidedness) has also come to mean missing one arm. But this is gradually being replaced by the terms ippō-teki (one-sided) and fukōhei (unfairness).

Kichigai (insane) has also been deemed unacceptable. This is a frequently used word, as in kichigai ja nai no? (are you crazy?) or mattaku kichigaijimite iru (it's totally insane). But expressions such as kuruma kichigai (car crazy), otokichi (abbreviation for ōtobai kichigai, or motorcycle maniac), tenikichi (abbreviation for tenisu kichigai, or tennis nut), tsurikichi (abbreviation for tsuri kichigai, or fishing freak), and kyōjin (lunatic, madman) have all disappeared from mass media usage. Kichigai has become seishin shōgaisha (mentally handicapped).

Finally, chie okure (slow-witted) and hakuchi (idiot) have been replaced by chiteki shōgaisha and chino shōgaisha (both meaning intellectually or mentally handicapped).

Profession-Related (shokugyō kanren)

In Japan, as elsewhere, certain occupations are the objects of ridicule and derision.

Hyakushō, inakappe, and tagosaku, for example, all are used to mean farmer, boor, hayseed, hick, or country bumpkin. In English there are many such words, but in Japanese there are only a few. We're not sure of the reason for this discrepancy. It may be, though, that farmers in Japan have long formed a fairly large and powerful bloc and, thus, they're a group that's best not offended. In the Tokugawa era, for example, farmers were nominally given the second highest of the four social ranks, after the samurai. The truth of the matter is that they were the poorest, as they were always prime targets for heavy taxation.

Hyakushō literally means a hundred names. Originally it was used to refer to individuals without any rank and, over time, it came to mean farmer. Now it is used rather disdainfully, as are tagosaku or inakappe, when speaking of someone who is uneducated, boorish, or rude, regardless of his native place or occupation. Donbyakusho is even more disdainful.

When you want to use hyakushō to refer respectfully to a farmer, add the honorific prefix o-and the suffix-san. In ordinary conversation today, however, most Japanese use the terms nōmin (farming people) and noka (farming family).

Inakappe, originally inaka-hei, consists of inaka (countryside or native place), and a euphonic change of the suffix-hex. Kappe by itself is much more popular, as in aitsu wa kappe da ne—wakatcha inai (he's such a bumpkin—he doesn't know anything).

Bun-ya derives from the word shinbun-ya and refers to the press or a journalist. Shinbun-ya is also a colloquial expression for shinbun hanbai ten (newspaper sales agency). Bun-ya is now used when speaking about a journalist in a derogatory manner. The yakuza and their associates hate journalists almost as much as they hate the police, and they're fond of this expression.

It's interesting that once kisha (journalist), yakusha (actor), and geisha were regarded as yakuza (-na) kagyō (shady, suspicious, or good-for-nothing occupations). People in these professions were thought to be scandalous parasites living off common, decent folk. It's true that journalists can be fairly unscrupulous individuals, but in general journalism is regarded by young people today as one of the most desirable occupations to pursue.

As with bun-ya,-ya is used as a derogatory suffix in politics, too. Seiji-ya, then, would refer to a shrewd or manipulative politician. Seijika, on the other hand, is a neutral word for politician.

Ongaku-ya (ongaku is music) and oto-ya (oto is sound) are words used to describe musicians, and are more colloquial than the standard ongakuka (musician). The same can be said of gakutai (musical group) as opposed to bkesutora (orchestra). We aren't authorities on what is or isn't art, but nowadays any popular musician or singer, no matter how bad, is called achisto (artist) in Japan.

Peinki-ya (painter, as in house painter) is the most degrading expression for gaka (painter or artist). Ekaki is a colloquial expression for a painter that is often used with derogatory connotations. This term comes from e o kaku (to draw a picture).

Sakka refers to a writer or novelist. Saku means to create, make, or write. Bunshi (literary man, writer), on the other hand, can be used contemptuously, as in sanmon-bunshi (hackwriter). Sanmon here means three cents, implying worthlessness. Monokaki (literally, a person who writes things; also a secretary), as ekaki above, has even more derogatory connotations because it implies a lack of creativity. Takaga monokaki means I know he or she can write, but so what? Takaga here is a belittling term meaning only, merely, or at best.

In profession-related vocabulary, new words have been coined to replace older ones. Tosatsujō is a slaughterhouse, but its use is considered unacceptable. Tojō is better, though the lengthy official expression shokuniku shorijō (meat-processing center) is even more acceptable, if harder to say. The old expression gomi-ya (literally, garbage collector) has recently become seisō sagyō in, shortened to seisō in (literally, person who cleans the city, or sanitary engineer).

Un-chan (car driver) has become untenshu. Takushii no un-chan is now takushii untenshu or takushii doraiba (from the English driver).

Bōzu (monk) is now ōbo-san. Sōshokusha (priest-hood person) has been shortened to sōryo. Yabu-isha (an incompetent doctor or quack) is now unusable. In this case, yabu comes from the word for a shrine maiden, particularly in the remote countryside, who is somewhat of an amateur in her profession. Yabu alone can also mean a quack, and yabo-isha or hebo-isha are both used to mean a doctor who is not very skillful.

Dokata (coolie) is now unusable. The politically correct word is kensetsu rodosha (construction worker) or kensetsu sagyō-in (construction operations team member).

Bataya, which used to mean a rag-picker or bum, is now haihin kaishū gyōsha (haihin is waste articles, kaishū is collection, and gyōsha is trader or dealer).

Nowadays, the old familiar expressions for occupations such as barber or greengrocer are rarely seen in newspapers. These traditional words have no derogatory connotations, but people engaged in these trades want to be referred to in a more modern fashion. Thus, toko-ya (the old familiar expression for barber) is now rihatsu ten (literally, hair adjusting shop). In conversation, though, toko-ya is made acceptable by adding the honorific suffix-san to create toko-ya-san. Yao-ya (greengrocer), nikuya (butcher's shop), and sakana-ya (fishmonger) are now officially seikasho, shokuniku hanbaigyo, and sengyosho, though the old terms are also used by adding the suffix-san.

The Elderly and Women (rōjin, josei kanren)

Ijiwaru bāsan (mean old woman) and yokubari jiisan (greedy old man) are derogatory terms for the stereotypical bad characters who appear in Japanese folk tales. As Japanese society ages, there has been an increase in cases of Alzheimer's disease, and boke (senility) is becoming a large social problem. A typical derogatory term that has appeared from this is boke rōjin (senile old man or woman).

The standard word used to describe the elderly is toshiyori or, more politely, o-toshiyoh. The Japanese concept of getting old has been compared to waves continuously lapping up on the shore. Thus, there is an old saying yoru toshi-nami ni wa katenai (literally, you cannot triumph over your increasing years). Similar expressions in English might include time and tide wait for no man, or nothing is sure but death and taxes. In any case, toshi-nami in this expression literally means age-wave, and yoru is to draw near.

Another expression connected with the elderly is toshiyori no hiyamizu (hiyamizu is cold water), meaning an old man's indiscretion or, in English, there's no fool like an old fool.

In the traditional sumo world, on the other hand, toshiyori is a retired wrestler who still holds great influence both politically and economically. It's said that in order to become an official toshiyori, a fee of more than a million dollars is required.

Jijii and babā are derogatory words for an old man or woman. We have already mentioned the expressions kusojijii and kusobabā, which mean a disgusting old man or woman. Jiji-musai and its modern equivalent ojinkusai both mean old-mannish or slovenly. Jiji-musai comes from the jii in ojii-san (old man or grandfather) and musakurushi (sordid or squalid). Take care, though, for there is no such expression as baba-musai.

In 1972 the late Sawako Ariyoshi, a well-known female author, wrote a novel entitled Kōkotsu no Hito (The Twilight Years). It concerned the problem of the aging (rōjin mondai) and was considered a harbinger of Japan's present concern with this issue. The central character of the novel was a senile 84-year-old widower who had forgotten everything about his past, including the names and faces of his closest relatives. With no enjoyment or hope in his life, he just hung on while his family tended to his needs. As a result of this novel, the terms kōkotsu and kōkotsu ningen have become popular expressions that describe an extremely senile person. The word actually means in a state of ecstasy, trance, or rapture.

Boke, which comes from the verb bokeru (to grow senile) is a popular synonym for kōkotsu or kōkotsu ningen. Boke is often used in ordinary conversation as an interjection like baka, or as in boketeru ne, mo wasureta no? (you're spaced-out—have you forgotten already?). Netakiri rōjin (an old person who has taken to his bed for good) is another expression used in connection with the aging.

There are many more slang terms for the elderly. Oibore means dotard or withered up. Oibore babā is a withered old woman, a hag, or an old witch. Mōroko also refers to dotage. Kare wa mōroko shita means he became senile.

Shobokure is a dull old man, but it can also be used when referring to a wretched state, even in relation to a young person. Doshita no shobokure-chatte? means why do you look so miserable?

Yoi-yoi is a derogatory slang expression for paralysis or a paralyzed person. This is often used in reference to elderly people. Yoi-yoi includes the concepts of rorerore and tare-nagashi. Rore-rore means inarticulateness or an inarticulate old person, while tare-nagashi means incontinence. Tare comes from the verb tareru (to drip), and nagashi comes from the verb nagasu (to let flow or run out).

Tasogare (literally, twilight time) is also used in relation to aging. Jinsei no tasogare, for example, refers to people in their 60s who are starting to show real signs of aging. Tasogare jiisan is a derogatory term for such men who also have lots of money and like young girls. Tasogare is an expression that is more than 1,000 years old, coming from tarezo, kare? (who is that man?), a question that might well be asked as dusk sets in and vision becomes more difficult.

The expression me-ha-ma (eyes, teeth, and cock) lists the body parts to be checked for symptoms of aging, as well as the order in which they occur. Me are the eyes, and farsightedness is thought to begin in the 40s and get worse with age. Next is ha (teeth), which over time become vulnerable to cavities and gum disease, even loss. Last is ma from mar a (penis), implying that bokki (erection) becomes difficult. Thus the question me-hama, daijōbu? (are your me-ha-ma OK?) becomes commonplace as men enter their 50s. If the situation worsens, men are visited by the unwelcome trio of kasumi-me, sōireba, and yakutatazu no inpo (bleary eyes, false teeth, and limp dick).

Naturally there are various discriminatory expressions used to describe women in Japanese.

Onna (woman) is the word most commonly used in conjunction with otoko (man), but with the tentative spread of feminism, onna is starting to become less popular. Expressions such as ano onna (that woman), ii onna (beautiful woman), dame-na onna (bad or useless woman), wakai onna (young woman), hataraku onna (working woman), and kekkon shinai onna (unmarried woman), must, in order to be acceptable, all add no hito (becoming onna no hito, redundant, but meaning female person). Or, onna may be replaced with josei (literally, female sex). So far, there's no corresponding restriction on otoko.

Feminists strongly criticize some of the older expressions created in Japan's male-dominant society. For instance, the words meaning widow, goke (part left behind in the family) and mibōjin (not yet dead person), are under heavy attack these days. What is offensive is the implication that a woman is less than a person because her husband is dead. Memeshii (very womanly) has a negative connotation of womanish or sissy, while ōshii (very manly) is always used in a positive sense.

The expression oba-san (auntie) used to be a convenient expression for older women, but is now perceived by middle-aged women as derogatory. It is now becoming necessary to call even women in their 40s one-san (elder sister).

In 1989, the slang word obatarian was coined to refer to obnoxious middle-aged women. Despite protests from women's groups, it's in extensive use nationwide. Obatarian is the name of a hit comic strip and derives from a combination of oba-san and Batarian, the name of an immortal cartoon monster. Obatarian are the kind of dumpy, indifferently dressed women one sees at department stores fighting for bargains or forcing fellow train passengers to make a place for them to sit down.

Traditional discriminatory expressions for middle-aged women are toshima (aged) and ō-doshima (very aged). A new word that has replaced toshima is jukujo (mature woman). The term jukujo jidai is a synonym for onna zakari (prime of womanhood). Here juku means to mature or ripen, and jo is the same kanji as onna or woman. Some new expressions such as jukunen (mature or ripened age) and naisu midoru (nice middle) were created, but they haven't become too popular.

Spurred by the feminist movement in America, there has been a trend toward nonsexist expressions in Japan as well. Finding new words to replace terms such as goshujin (literally, master; meaning husband) or oku-san (literally, lady of the house; meaning wife), however, has been difficult, with ongoing trial and error. Tsureai (partner) and haigusha (spouse), for example, don't sound natural in conversation and have not caught on so far.

Otoko masari (stronger than a man) means a spunky woman. Note that there is no such expression as onna masari. Demodori (a person returning home after a divorce) applies only to women, as do akusai (bad wife) and akujo (undesirable woman). There are no male equivalents for these two expressions. When criticizing a bad male partner, such expressions as binbō-kuji (literally, a poor lot; in this context, unluckiness), kaishonashi (shiftless), hajisarashi (shameless), ikuji-nashi (weak-minded), or waru (villain) are used.

As women have started to gain financial independence through employment, the number of divorces among those over 50 has increased, and men who haven't bothered with family life till now are beginning to feel threatened. Under such circumstances, while it may not actually come to divorce, there are many kateinai bekkyo (separate beds in the house) and kateinai rikon (in-house divorces). Thus, the teishu kanpaku (bossy husbands) who only had to utter three words in their homes, meshi, furo, futon (dinner, hot bath, and bed), are now being treated as sōdai gomi (big trash, such as worn-out furniture, refrigerators, and so on). Sōdai gomi refers to the husbands who are goro-goro shite iru, that is, loafing around the house. There are also terms like nure ochiba (wet fallen leaves that stick on the ground and are difficult to remove) for husbands who reach teinen (retirement age) and hang around the house, demanding extra meals and other services and becoming increasingly critical of their wives.

Race-Related (jinshu kanren)

Because of the prejudice directed by Japanese against Koreans and other Asians after the Meiji era, especially during the period surrounding World War II, derogatory language based on race is a very sensitive and controversial subject. Many Asians still resent the Japanese because their memories of the cruel treatment dealt by the Japanese are so bitter. So the terms introduced here should be used with great care—if at all.

Asako is a derogatory term for Koreans. The etymology of this word is a little convoluted, but here goes. In Japan, ordinary expressions for Koreans are chōsen-jin or kankoku-jin, and we'll go into the difference between them a little later. According to the usual way of making a derogatory term, one would take the chō of chōsen and add the contemptuous suffix kō as in sen-kō, which is sometimes used by disgruntled students as a derogatory term for their sensei (teacher). But chō-kō was rejected because it was potentially insulting to the chōtei (Imperial Court) especially because the chō in chōtei and chōsen are the same kanji (morning or dynasty). As this character can also be pronounced asa, chō was changed to asa before adding the derogatory suffix kō. Asa-chan,-chan being a diminutive suffix, is a contemptuous variation, slightly milder than asa-kō.

Senjin, an abbreviated form of chōsenjin (Korean person), is as historically insulting to Koreans as asa-kō and asa-chan. These days chon-kō is frequently used as well, along with derogatory derivatives such as chonbaggu (bag) and chon-gutsu (shoes) to describe possessions of Korean students in Japan.

After World War II, when Korea was freed from Japanese domination, the South Korean people insisted that they be called kankokujin. The matter is further complicated because the North Koreans have demanded that the term chōsenjin be used, stating that kankoku is not an authorized name for the unified peninsula.

The North Koreans are also opposed to the expression hoku-sen, which is a derivative and abbreviation of kita chōsen (North Korea). The character for north in Japanese can be pronounced hoku as well as kita. Thus, one must be careful to choose the proper occasions to use chōsenjin or kankokujin. Caution also needs to be exercised with hantōjin (people of the peninsula), a term implying that Korea isn't even a nation at all, but perhaps rather an annex of Japan.

Bakachon, as in bakachon kamera (foolproof camera or idiot's camera), is a popular expression that has been criticized as being discriminatory against Koreans. Critics claim that it came from the expression baka de mo chon de mo utsuseru (even a fool or a Korean can take a picture), with chon being a derogatory expression equivalent to chon-kō. But etymologically, this is not correct.

The word chon was actually created in the Edo era to mean an immature or foolish person, and had nothing to do with Koreans. People today, however, without knowing this history, have adopted the discriminatory folk etymology. The chon in a phrase like baka de mo chon to osu dake (even an idiot can take a picture by just pushing the button) actually came from the sound of the clappers heard at kabuki. But after being criticized by pro-Korean groups, the mass media decided some years ago to try to avoid controversy, and so it's rare to see this expression in Japanese newspapers nowadays. Alternatives are zenjidō kamera or ōtomachikku kamera (fully automatic camera).

Chan-koro, an extremely contemptuous expression referring to the Chinese, was used until the end of World War II. It is thought to have come from an onomatopoeia used in the Edo era. The story goes that a Chinese in the costume of the Ching Dynasty sold sweets in Edo by striking a small gong chang, chang. Koro is said to be a suffix to indicate something small, like inu-koro (puppy dog) or ishi-koro (small stones). Regardless of the etymology, the expression became more and more derogatory as Japanese imperialism rode to victory in the Sino-Japanese War and, in the process, killed many Chinese. Japanese used the expression so disdainfully that koro became associated with korosu (to kill).

Shinajin (Chinese people, similar to the English use of Chink) was used around the same time as a derogatory synonym for chan-koro. Shina-pokopen is even worse, adding the nuance of China being a weak nation. Pokopen came from a Chinese word meaning no good.

After World War II, when China became the People's Republic of China, the acceptable expression for Chinese people became chūgokujin. Later, even shina-soba (Chinese noodles) was changed to chūka-soba, and it would be very difficult to find a Chinese noodle shop that uses the expression shina-soba any more.

The most up-to-date expression for a Chinese restaurant is not chūka ryōri ten, but chugoku ryōri (ten). The reason for this, it is said, is because the owners of such restaurants will be thought of as being pro-Taiwanese (Taiwan is called chūka minkoku) if they use the word chūka.

Because of the close geographical and historical relations between Japan, Korea, and China, there are many derogatory expressions in Japanese for the people of these two neighboring nations. Because of an historical lack of such relationships, there are not as many terms for other foreigners. Nonetheless, here are a few of them.

Gaijin (literally, outside person) is the most common term used for non-Japanese in Japan. It's short for gaikokujin, or outside-country person. Neither term is particularly derogatory in themselves, though non-Japanese quickly tire of hearing them. But when they're spoken in a derogatory tone, they're undoubtedly meant to be just that.

Ketō is a typical disparaging word for a foreigner, particularly one from the West. It comes from the now archaic tōjin (literally, Tang dynasty people in China). Both before and during the Tang dynasty, Japan imported various aspects of other cultures, mainly from China. To be foreign in Japan, therefore, was to be Chinese. In this context, tōjin was adopted to mean foreigner, even for people from countries other than China. This term was even adopted to apply to the Japanese wife of the first American consul general to Japan, Townsend Harris. Her name was Okichi, but she was popularly known as tōjin Okichi.

Ketō or ketōjin was made by adding ke (hair or hairy) to tōjin to mean outlandish hairy foreigner. Western men, with their profuse (compared to the Japanese) facial hair and custom of wearing beards, appeared truly outrageous to the Japanese who first saw them. Artists have immortalized Japanese visions of these men in the woodblock prints of the Tokugawa era. These artists invariably portrayed Western men as having huge noses, red faces, and lots of hair, and the prints they made were called nanbanjin prints after the common word of the day for foreigner. Nanbanjin literally means barbarian from the south, presumably because the first European ships from Portugal came from the south some 450 years ago.

Ame-ko is a combination of amerika (America) and the contemptuous suffix-ko. This term appeared after World War II when the United States occupied Japan, but is no longer used, reflecting the close relationship between the two countries.

Ita-kō is a derogatory expression for Italian people and was created in the same way. We don't know exactly why it was coined, but it may have been because Italy was the first among the Axis powers—Japan's allies in the war—to surrender to the Allies in World War II. Since the Japanese at that time considered surrender to be the supreme disgrace, they must have looked upon the Italians with utter contempt.

The word rosuke comes from roshiya (Russia) and the contemptuous suffix-suke, and was coined after Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. It can be translated as Russkie.

Dojin (natives or aborigines) is a derogatory word for the inhabitants of developing areas, such as South Pacific islanders (nanyō no dojin) or African natives (afurika no dojin). These expressions appeared quite often in the Japanese mass media, especially on TV comedies and variety programs, until people in the developing nations became aware of it and protested the insensitive treatment. Since then the mass media have been using a modern alternative, namely genjū-min (native people).

Kuronbō or kuronbō can be translated as the distasteful word nigger. They derive from kuro (black) and the derogatory suffix-bō, with an "n" for euphonic purposes. Another derogatory word for blacks is niguro, which comes from the English negro.

Ai-no-ko (half-breed) refers to children of mixed marriages. Traditionally the Japanese have rarely married non-Japanese, so children from such unions come in for their share of contempt. Ai is from aida (in between), and kō is child. Konketsu-ji (literally, mixed-blood child) is a proper word, but it is often used contemptuously as a synonym for ai-no-ko. Both were often used to describe babies fathered, legitimately or otherwise, by Americans in the postwar period.

Hāfu (half) is more up-to-date and is used in such expressions as ano modem wa hāfu (that model is of mixed blood) or kare wa Amerika to Nihon no hāfu da (he's half American and half Japanese). We prefer another approach—the one that says that children of mixed marriages are not half anything, but rather both.