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1 1. James Verini, They Will Have to Die Now: Mosul and the Fall of the Caliphate (London: Oneworld 2019), 16.

2 2. General Stephen Townsend, Multidomain Battle in Megacities Conference, Fort Hamilton, New York, 3 April 2018: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARz0l_evGAE.

3 3. Colonel Pat Work, US Army, MWI Podcast: ‘The battle for Mosul’, 14 February 2018: https://mwi.usma.edu/mwi-podcast-battle-mosul-col-pat-work/.

4 4. Gareth Brereton, I Am Ashurbanipal: King of the World, King of Assyria (London: Thames and Hudson, 2019), 281.

5 5. Townsend, Multidomain Battle in Megacities Conference.

6 6. Townsend, Multidomain Battle in Megacities Conference.

7 7. Robert Postings, ‘An analysis of the Islamic State’s SVBIED use in Raqqa’, International Review 11 May 2018: https://international-review.org/an-analysis-of-islamic-states-svbied-use-in-raqqa/; ‘A guide to the Islamic State’s way of urban warfare’, Modern War Institute, 7 September 2018: https://mwi.usma.edu/guide-islamic-states-way-urban-warfare/.

8 8. Postings, ‘An analysis of the Islamic State’s SVBIED use in Raqqa’.

9 9. Townsend, Multidomain Battle in Megacities Conference.

10 10. Townsend, Multidomain Battle in Megacities Conference.

11 11. Stephen Graham, Cities under Siege: The New Military Urbanism (London: Verso, 2010), 16.

12 12. Timothy Thomas, ‘The 31 December 1994 – 8 February 1995 battle for Grozny’, in William Robertson (ed.), Block by Block: The Challenges of Urban Operations (Ft Leavenworth, KS: US ACGS College Press, 2003), 170–1.

13 13. Major-General Rupert Jones, OF-7, British Army, Deputy Commander, Operation Inherent Resolve, personal interview, 3 August 2018.

14 14. Amos Harel and Avi Issacharoff, 34 Days: Israel, Hezbollah and the War in Lebanon (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 191.

15 15. Raphael Marcus, ‘Learning “under fire”: Israel’s improvised military adaptation to Hamas tunnel warfare’, Journal of Strategic Studies 42(3–4) 2019, 357.

16 16. Paul Quinn-Judge, ‘Ukraine’s meat grinder is back in business’, Foreign Policy, 12 April 2016.

17 17. Virgil, The Aeneid, trans. David West (London: Penguin 2003), 37.

18 18. The Bible, Joshua 6:21.

19 19. Wayne Lee, Waging War: Conflict, Culture and Innovation in World History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 15.

20 20. Edward Soja, Postmetropolis (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 32.

21 21. Lee, Waging War, 16.

22 22. Soja, Postmetropolis, 64.

23 23. Brereton, I Am Ashurbanipal, 109.

24 24. Richard Norton, ‘Feral cities’, Naval War College Review 56(4) 2003, 1.

25 25. Kevin M. Felix and Frederick D. Wong, ‘The case for megacities’, Parameters 45(1) 2015, 19–32.

26 26. John Spencer ‘The city is not neutral: why urban warfare is so hard’, Modern War Institute, 4 March 2020: https://mwi.usma.edu/city-not-neutral-urban-warfare-hard/.

27 27. David Betz and Hugh Stanford-Tuck, ‘The city is neutral’, Texas National Security Review 2(4) 2019, 60–87.

28 28. Alice Hills, Future Wars in Cities: Rethinking a Liberal Dilemma (London: Frank Cass, 2004), 153.

29 29. I take the word battlescape from Arjan Appadurai, Modernity at Large (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).

30 30. The word ‘siege’ is derived from the Latin word sedicum, meaning a seat. Sieger in French means to sit.