Читать книгу The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics - Carol A. Chapelle - Страница 25

Since adverbs express such a wide range of meanings, treatment of their grammar also involves focusing on their semantic roles. Quirk et al. (1985, pp. 479–86) distinguish seven broad categories, often based on a figurative extension of what they call “spatial relations,” and with a clear nod to the traditional categories of time, place, manner, frequency, and degree, although more rigorously articulated. Space or “place” adverbs refer to position (Change here), direction (They were speeding southward), distance (It's not far from the town); time adverbs to temporal distance (The meeting may have taken place yesterday/before/then), duration (We will remain eternally vigilant every single day / Diamonds are forever), frequency (Prices are reviewed and updated regularly), relationship, or “temporal continuity” (The rehearsal is already/still in progress/underway [the rehearsal has started/is ongoing]); process adverbs refer to manner (People were casually strolling in the park), means (Never has such naked aggression been so strongly and generously supported morally, politically, economically, and militarily), instrument (the mountain peak was measured geometrically and barometrically), agent (The printer connects wirelessly to your computer); respect adverbs convey the sense “in regard to” (They have no right legally, ethically, or morally to censor the book [in terms of the law, ethics, morals]); contingency adverbials refer to cause (Moods may change easily from laughter), reason (He never intended to marry—neither for love nor [for] money), purpose (We use language in this country in order to understand each other, and to give and receive information), result (As a result of the blocked land border, the main smuggling route is now by sea), condition (Long journeys by road should be undertaken only if absolutely necessary), concession (This month remains very cold despite a significant increase in temperatures)—where there is no one‐word adverb equivalent to the multiword adverbial units or expressions cited; modality adverbs refer to emphasis (The green eyes were incredibly [extremely] dark, approximation (The truth probably lies somewhere between the two poles of opinion), restriction or “focus” (This fact alone must have affected the way that people conceived of travel and of distance); degree adverbs refer to intensity (There are people who are not thrifty who really can't see the point of the little things / History is literally present in all that we do. It could scarcely be otherwise, since it is to history that we owe our frames of reference).

Sometimes medially placed adverbs overlap between two not unrelated readings, here modality (emphasis) and manner: He was locked in concentration, unswervingly focused on his meditation; “He was steadily/totally focused and focused in a determined/fixed manner.” The intensive meaning predominates: It is intimated by the lexical verb locked and the accompanying manner adverbial in concentration and, as a result of “delexicalization,” the more lexically loaded, adverbial of manner reading becomes secondary. This remains true, no matter how lexically loaded the adverb(s) appear to be: It does not feel right to refer to her voice in the past tense, because it always sounds so fantastically, vitally [“absolutely,” “completely,” “totally”] in the moment (Hoye, 1997). Adverb classes are not watertight; their interpretation will depend on recognizing the wider context in which they occur, where there may well be a blending of possible interpretations.