Читать книгу The Midwestern Native Garden - Charlotte Adelman - Страница 12

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SPRING

“The winter wind has lost much of its cutting edge,” wrote naturalist John Madson about the midwestern spring. “From then until hard frost, there will be no time when the prairiescape is not enameled with flowers of some kind. From the first pasqueflowers of March to the towering sunflowers of October, the tallgrass prairie will never be without flowers.”¹ March brings the first pasqueflowers, but for another twentieth-century nature lover, Patricia Duncan, “the month of May is the apex of the spring prairie. Green is taking over, bird song is taking over, and insects are taking over. Wildflowers such as golden alexanders, birdsfoot violets, prairie rose, spiderwort, purple milkweed . . . are taking over.”² Midwestern spring flowers had nineteenth-century admirers, too. “The earth in the woods is covered with May-apples not yet ripe, and in the enclosed prairies with large fine strawberries, now in their perfection.” Also beautiful are “the red lily, and the painted cup, a large scarlet flower,”³ wrote William Cullen Bryant. Visiting Illinois to be with her sister, Eliza W. Farnham wrote, “The landscape grows more beautiful every day. The prairie puts on its richest garb about the first of June. The painted cup, moccasin flower, and geranium, come out.”⁴ Observing spring while touring the Great Lakes in 1843, Sarah Margaret Fuller wrote, “In the wood grew not only the flowers I had before seen, and wealth of tall wild roses, but the splendid blue spiderwort, that ornament of our gardens,” and the “most delicate flowers,” including “a familiar love, the Scottish harebell, the gentlest, and most touching form of the flower-world.”⁵

After our long winters, midwesterners look forward to beautiful spring flowers. It’s too bad that many commercial garden centers, catalogs, and public displays of spring flowers feature ornamental plants from Europe and elsewhere. Native spring flowers are just as beautiful, and their nectar attracts bees and butterflies. Midwestern wildflowers also play an essential role in butterfly reproduction, because these insects lay their eggs only on host plants that the caterpillars, or larvae, can digest, which most often are native plants. Several fritillary butterfly species lay their eggs on or near native violets, sometimes when the host plant has already dried up. The parsnip, or black swallowtail, butterfly (Papilo polyxenes) and the Missouri or Ozark woodland swallowtail butterfly (P. joanae) lay their eggs on plants of the Carrot family, such as spring’s golden alexanders (Zizia spp.). America’s best-known butterfly, the milkweed or monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), lays her eggs on milkweeds (Asclepias spp.); the spring bloomers among them include blunt-leaved, green comet, and purple milkweed. As is typical of more than 90 percent of insects, most butterflies are restricted in their diets to native plants, because they “have not developed the enzymes” required to digest the leaves of nonnative plants.⁶

American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla)

Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia)

Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas)

The Midwest’s spectacular show of native spring flowers coincides with another extraordinary regional event. As northern birds, like the juncos (p. 207) that spend the winter in the Midwest, depart north for the summer, tiny, gorgeously colored warblers, robins, native sparrows, woodpeckers, and hummingbirds fly in by the millions from winter homes as far away as South America. At the end of their long journeys, the migratory birds begin to reproduce and seek tiny insects and caterpillars to feed their young, as do cardinals, chickadees, and other year-round residents. For birds, the native spring flowers play an essential role: hosting a variety of insect caterpillars and attracting quantities of tiny insects.

Many early spring flowers are ephemeral, so they take advantage of available sunlight before it is blocked by leafed-out plants. This brief window of opportunity attracts pollinators. Frequent visitors include various bee species, some just emerging from their underground wintering quarters. Some bees, such as honeybees and bumblebees, are generalists. Others, like the tiny, solitary bees called oligoleges, are specialists. Codependency requires these insects to pollinate specific species/genera of flowers. If a population of specialist bees fails to locate its special flowers, it cannot survive. The loss of one native bee population puts existing clumps of the beedependent flowers at risk.

Many insects contribute to the spring insect tapestry, but for native plants, none are more important than the ants. Wild ginger, blue cohosh, goldenseal, twinleaf, bloodroot, and trillium are some of the many native woodland spring flowers that depend on ants to distribute their seeds, and not on wind (as do some flowers and most grasses), because trees block the wind. The ants are attracted to the plant seed’s edible fleshy protein-rich appendages, or elaiosomes, which they carry to their nests to eat later. “After the ants have consumed the elaiosomes, they take the seeds to their waste disposal site, and ‘plant’ them in this nutrient rich environment.”⁷ Ants have been observed carrying wildflower seeds 30 feet away from a plant.⁸ Like bees, ants are an example of codependence, which benefits both parties and has existed since time immemorial. Wasps and mammals also perform this vital seed dispersing. Introduced nonnative ants may enter into or disrupt these mutualistic interactions between numerous plants and other insects.⁹

Another force disruptive to the mutualistic interactions between native plants, butterflies, and other insects is spring cleanup. Most homeowners give little thought to this modern-day ritual. We may notice that there seem to be fewer butterflies, fireflies, and birds around, but we rarely connect this circumstance to our gardening practices. Yet, the leaf litter that naturally mulches and fertilizes the soil holds insects in various stages of their lives. Removing these layers and/or covering them with sterilized mulch from the hardware store inhibit the growth of native woodland plants. It deprives robins, native sparrows, and other birds of insect food. It also deprives baby firefly or lightning bug (really beetle) larvae that live in the soil of the worms, snails, and slugs they eat, preventing their development into the adult fireflies that add magic to our summer evenings. Cutting host plants down too early kills the baby butterflies that overwintered as larvae or pupae. Gardeners who leave host plants in place through late spring help overwintering butterflies successfully reproduce. There is also the possibility of observing the emergence of adult butterflies that spent the winter there in their other stages of life. Leaving leaf litter intact enables gardeners to observe the robins, native sparrows, and other spring migrants that search for dormant insects, worms, and other bugs. Natural leaf litter enhances the beauty of woodland wildflowers that grow in soils rich in natural mulch. Choosing native host plants and conducting suitably restrained spring cleanups, including not using pesticides, are easy techniques for gardeners who love butterflies, fireflies, and birds and hope to see them prosper.

American robin (Turdus migratorius)

White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis)

The benefits offered by native flowers, such as providing nectar and pollen and serving as butterfly reproduction sites, are rarely equaled by introduced flowers. For gardeners interested in fostering bees, birds, and butterflies by planting native spring flowers to replace introduced (that is, exotic, nonnative) spring flowers, we offer the following suggestions.

Nonnative:

AJUGA, BUGLEWEED. Family: Mint (Lamiaceae). Genus: Ajuga (A. reptans). There are other species and cultivars. Origin: Europe. Height: 6–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Bluish flowers late spring and summer. Cultivars may have purple or multicolored leaves. Cultivation: Partial shade. Well-drained soil. Can be a persistent weed. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive in much of the Midwest.

Ajuga (Ajuga reptans)

Native Alternatives:

GREEK VALERIAN, CREEPING POLEMONIUM, JACOB’S LADDER, SPREADING JACOB’S LADDER. Family: Phlox (Polemoniaceae). Genus: Polemonium (P. reptans). Height: 8–18 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Large light blue or violet bell-shaped flowers 2–3 weeks April to June. Foliage remains green through fall. Cultivation: Sun/shade. Moist or average garden soil. Note: Threatened or endangered in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: The flowers attract Eastern tiger swallowtails (Papilio glaucus) (p. 136) and spring butterflies, skippers, moths, honeybees, bumblebees, and the ruby-throated hummingbird, the only hummingbird that breeds in eastern North America. Greek valerian is pollinated by a specialist bee: the Andrena polemonii, an oligolege of Polemonium species. Nonnative Note: Don’t confuse Greek valerian with the European Jacob’s ladder, also known as charity (P. caeruleum).

Greek valerian (Polemonium reptans)

Ruby-throated hummingbirds (Archilochus colubris)

Other Native Alternatives:

CANADIAN ANEMONE (see below); CANADIAN WILD GINGER, p. 76; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38; WILD GERANIUM, p. 47.

Nonnative:

ANEMONE, SNOWDROP ANEMONE. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Anemone (A. sylvestris). There are cultivars. Origin: Europe. Height: 10–18 inches. Ornamental Attributes: White flowers. White woolly fruit. Cultivation: Light shade. Moist soil. Very aggressive; WOOD ANEMONE (A. nemorosa). There are cultivars. Height: 6–8 inches. Early spring.

Wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa)

Native Alternatives:

CANADIAN ANEMONE. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Anemone (A. canadensis). Height: 8–36 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Beautiful, long-lasting, yellow-centered white or lavender-tinted flowers May to August. Foliage persists to frost. Conceals empty spaces left by ephemerals. Long-lived plants create showy colonies that are low-maintenance groundcover. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Moist or average garden soil; AMERICAN WOOD ANEMONE (A. quinquefolia); CAROLINA ANEMONE (A. caroliniana). Height: 4–6 inches. Ornamental Attributes: “Produces flowers of exceptional beauty.”¹⁰ April, May. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Dry soil. Note: Endangered or extirpated in parts of the Midwest; LONG-HEADED THIMBLEWEED, p. 102. Nature Note: Anemone flowers have abundant pollen that attracts small bees and beneficial flies. Mammalian herbivores rarely eat the foliage.

Canadian anemone (Anemone canadensis)

Carolina anemone (Anemone caroliniana Walter)

Nonnative:

AVENS, HERB BENNET. Family: Rose (Rosaceae). Genus: Geum (G. urbanum). There are other species and hybrids. Origin: Southern Europe. Height: 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Yellow spring flowers. Feathery seed heads. Compound foliage. Cultivation: Sun. Welldrained moist soil. Nature Note: The hooked achenes cling to fur, feathers, and clothing, helping distribute the plants far and wide. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive in parts of the Midwest.

Avens (Geum urbanum)

Native Alternatives:

YELLOW AVENS. Family: Rose (Rosaceae). Genus: Geum (G. aleppicum var. strictum). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Yellow spring flowers. Feathery seed heads. Compound foliage. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Medium or moist soil. Does not tolerate wet soil.

There are many native Geum species, including WATER AVENS, PURPLE AVENS, INDIAN CHOCOLATE (G. rivale); WHITE AVENS (G. canadense); ROUGH AVENS (G. laciniatum). Nature Note: Geum species are pollinated by nectar- or pollen-seeking bees and beneficial wasps, flies, and beetles. Mammalian herbivores avoid the plants; BOWMAN’S ROOT. Genus: Gillenia (G. trifoliata). Note: Threatened in parts of the Midwest; and AMERICAN IPECAC (G. stipulata). The two latter plants create long-lasting groundcovers with airy-looking, attractive seed heads and foliage that remains green through fall.

Yellow avens (Geum aleppicum)

More Native Alternatives:

AMERICAN PASQUEFLOWER, p. 28; CELANDINE POPPY, p. 21; PRAIRIE SMOKE, p. 28.

White avens (Geum canadense)

Nonnative:

BARRENWORT. Family: Barberry (Berberidaceae). Genus: Epimedium (Epimedium spp.). Origin: China, Japan, Europe. Height: 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Racemes of small cup-shaped yellow, pink, white, red flowers in spring sometimes get lost in heart-shaped bronze-tinted leaves. Cultivation: Partial shade. Moist rich well-drained soil. Shelter. Mulch.

Barrenwort (Epimedium × versicolor)

Native Alternatives:

YELLOW SEDGE, COMMON OAK SEDGE, PENNSYLVANIA SEDGE, PENN SEDGE, OAK SEDGE. Family: Sedge (Cyperaceae). Genus: Carex (C. pensylvanica, C. marginata, C. stolonifera). Height: 6–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Tufts of fine, narrow semievergreen bright green leaves. Yellow-tipped thimble-like flowers. Slowly spreading groundcover. Used for no-mow lawn. Cultivation: Native to deciduous woods. Sun (for moist sites). Part shade (for dry sites). Welldrained soil with average moisture or dry and sandy soil. Nature Note: Native sedges host many butterfly species, including eyed brown (Satyrodes eurydice), dion skipper (Euphyes dion), and eastern dun skipper (Euphyes ruricola), found in fens and swamps. Gardens near wetlands can attract these skippers, and many other skippers and butterflies, with nectar-rich flowers like swamp milkweed and buttonbush. Sedges host grasshoppers such as the striped sedge grasshopper (Stethophyma lineata) and Otte’s sedge grasshopper (Stethophyma celata), various leafhoppers, leaf beetles, and spittlebug nymphs. Sedge seeds attract many kinds of birds.

Yellow sedge (Carex pensylvanica)

Dion skipper (Euphyes dion)

More Native Alternatives:

ALUMROOT, p. 82; BISHOP’S CAP, p. 15; HEARTLEAF FOAMFLOWER, p. 15; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38; CANADIAN WILD GINGER, p. 76.

Eastern dun skipper (Euphyes vestris)

Nonnative:

BASKET OF GOLD, GOLD ALYSSUM. Family: Mustard (Brassicaceae). Genus: Aurinia (A. saxatilis). Origin: Eastern Europe. Height: 12–18 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Yellow flowers. Gray-green foliage. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained soil. Spreads rapidly by self-seeding. Requires deadheading. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive in parts of the Midwest.

Basket of gold (Aurinia saxatilis)

Native Alternatives:

EARLY BUTTERCUP. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Ranunculus (R. fascicularis). Height: 6–12 inches. Blooms April/May; BRISTLY BUTTERCUP (R. hispidus). Blooms April to June; LONGBEAK BUTTERCUP (R. longirostris); PRAIRIE, LABRADOR BUTTERCUP (R. rhomboideus). Height: 1–2 feet. Buttercup Ornamental Attributes: Shiny bright yellow often green-centered flowers, with some species blooming March to September. Good in rock gardens and as border plants. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained or dry soil. Some buttercups need wet or moist soil. Note: Some buttercup species are endangered in parts of the Midwest. Name Note: Ranunculus, from the Latin rana (frog), means “little frog,” because many buttercup species grow near water. Nature Note: Buttercups attract skippers (Polites spp.), swallowtails (Papilionidae spp.), the silvery checkerspot (Chlosyne nycteis), the eastern tailed-blue (Cupido comyntas), and butterflies that prefer yellow flowers like the gorgone checkerspot (Chlosyne gorgone), whose host plants include sunflowers (Helianthus spp.). See pp. 115–16, 138, 194. The major pollinators are flies such as syrphid flies and many bee species, including honeybees (Apis mellifera), little carpenter bees (Ceratina spp.), cuckoo bees (Nomada spp.), mason bees (Osmia spp.), halictid bees (Halictus spp., Lasioglossum spp.), and andrenid bees (Andrena spp.). Eastern chipmunks, gray squirrels, fox squirrels, and voles eat buttercup seeds, but the plants themselves are avoided by mammalian herbivores. Nonnative Note: Do not confuse the many nonnative buttercups with our native buttercups.

Early buttercup (Ranunculus fascicularis)

Gorgone checkerspot (Chlosyne gorgone)

Syrphid flies (Eristalis spp.)

Andrenid bees (Andrena spp.)

Sweat bee (Halictidae)

Eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus)

More Native Alternatives:

ROCKCRESS (foliage), p. 20; COMMON CINQUEFOIL, p. 16; GOLDEN ALEXANDERS, p. 33; GOLDEN RAGWORT, p. 35; HOARY PUCCOON, p. 36; SUNDROPS, p. 115.

Nonnative:

BERGENIA, ELEPHANT EARS, PIGSQUEAK. Family: Saxifrage (Saxifragaceae). Genus: Bergenia (B. cordifolia). Origin: China, central and southeast Asia. Height: 7–24 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Red, white, pink, purple coarse funnel-shaped flowers. Clumps of glossy evergreen leaves become tattered. Cultivation: Sun/partial shade. Moist well-drained soil.

Bergenia (Bergenia cordifolia)

Native Alternatives:

HEARTLEAF FOAMFLOWER, FALSE MITREWORT. Family: Saxifrage (Saxifragaceae). Genus: Tiarella (T. cordifolia). Height: 6–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Author Harriet Keeler wrote, “A single Tiarella by itself is an exceedingly beautiful plant but it also grows in mass sufficiently to make an impression by numbers.”¹¹ Cultivation: Light shade. Rich moist soil. Note: Endangered in parts of the Midwest.

Heartleaf foamflower (Tiarella cordifolia)

More Saxifrage Family Native Alternatives:

ALUMROOT. Flowers begin blooming in spring. See p. 82.

BISHOP’S CAP, TWOLEAF MITERWORT. Genus: Mitella (M. diphylla). Height: 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Clusters of fringed delicate fairy-like flowers bloom for a month April to June. “Under a glass the starry blossoms of the Mitella become objects of wonderful beauty; in fact, they suggest the delicate crystals of snow,” wrote Harriet Keeler.¹² Clumps of heart-shaped long-lasting evergreen leaves. Cultivation: Light or partial shade. Medium moist or average well-drained garden soil. Each flower is replaced by an open capsule that contains many small seeds, which are distributed by raindrops. They strike the capsule and cause it to bend, flinging some of its seeds. Nature Note: Pollinators include pollen-eating syrphid flies (p. 14) and species of short-tongued bees that seek nectar and collect pollen for their larvae.

More Native Alternatives:

COMMON CINQUEFOIL. Family: Rose (Rosaceae). Genus: Potentilla (P. simplex). Height: Mat-forming. Ornamental Attributes: Bright yellow flowers April to June. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Dry soil. Nature Note: Small butterflies seek the nectar. The endangered Karner blue butterfly (Plebejus melissa) uses common cinquefoil “as a nectar source when available.”¹³ Its primary visitors are small bees and beneficial flies. The larvae of a gall wasp (Gonaspis sp.) forms galls on the stems that are sought by birds, including woodpeckers, such as northern flickers,which eat the larvae.

CANADIAN WILD GINGER, p. 76; FRINGED BLEEDING HEART, p. 17; GREEK VALERIAN, p. 10; VIRGINIA WATERLEAF, p. 48; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38; WILD STRAWBERRY, p. 61.

Common cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex)

Northern flicker (Colaptes auratus)

Karner blue butterfly (Plebejus melissa)

Nonnative:

BLEEDING HEART, COMMON BLEEDING HEART. Family: Fumitory (Fumariaceae). Genus: Dicentra (D. spectabilis). Origin: East Asia. Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Racemes of pink heartshaped flowers. Cultivar ‘Alba’ is white. Cultivation: Light shade. Moist soil. Summer dormancy produces large barren areas. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive in parts of the Midwest.

Bleeding heart (Dicentra spectabilis)

Native Alternatives:

FRINGED BLEEDING HEART, EASTERN BLEEDING HEART, WILD BLEEDING HEART. Family: Fumitory (Fumariaceae). Genus: Dicentra (D. eximia) Height: 6 inches to 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Racemes of deep pink heart-shaped flowers spring through fall. “A more floriferous species than common bleeding heart when optimal growing conditions are provided.”¹⁴ Lacy often silvery-looking leaves remain attractive until frost. Foliage conceals empty spaces left by ephemerals. Masses of wild bleeding heart are spectacular. Cultivation: Sun/part shade. Moist soil. Nature Note: Wild bleeding heart attracts small insects that in turn attract hummingbirds (p. 10) and nesting birds; DUTCHMAN’S BREECHES (D. cucullaria). Height: 5–9 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Creamy white, waxy heart-shaped yellow-tipped ephemeral flowers April, May. Distinctly dissected blue-green leaves create clumps. Name Note: Derives from inflated spurs suggestive of legs of tiny pantaloons seen “anklesup”;¹⁵ SQUIRREL CORN (D. canadensis). Height: 6–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Flowers and leaves resemble Dutchman’s breeches and smell somewhat like hyacinths. Roots resemble grains of yellow corn.

Fringed bleeding heart (Dicentra eximia)

PALE CORYDALIS, ROCK HARLEQUIN. Genus: Corydalis (C. sempervirens). Height: 6–24 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Showy yellow-tipped single-spurred pink flowers. Cultivation: Sun. Dry soil. Nonnative Note: Do not confuse with the European yellow Corydalis (C. lutea). Nature Note: Spring flowers have a brief window of opportunity in which to attract pollinators, so they generally welcome most insects, but exceptions include Dutchman’s breeches, squirrel corn, and Corydalis, whose long spurs make reaching nectar a challenge. Bumblebees have long tongues that reach the nectar, but shorter-tongued honeybees don’t, so they gather the pollen. However, smaller bees sometimes poke holes in the sides of a bloom to access the nectar and so bypass pollinating the flower. The edible oily appendages of Corydalis seeds (elaiosomes) attract ants (particularly Pheidole bicarinata), which help to disperse the seeds. Hummingbirds visit all these flowers. Mammalian herbivores avoid the foliage.

Dutchman’s breeches (Dicentra cucullaria)

Pale corydalis (Corydalis sempervirens)

More Native Alternatives:

VIRGINIA WATERLEAF, p. 48; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38; WILD GERANIUM, p. 47.

Bumblebee (Bombus impatiens)

Nonnative:

BLUEBELL, ENGLISH BLUEBELL. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: (Endymion syn. Hyacinthoides) (E. nonscriptus); SPANISH BLUEBELL (E. hispanicus). There are many species and cultivars. Origin: Europe, North Africa. Height: 8–16 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Blue flowers. Strap-shaped leaves become eyesores. Cultivation: Shade. Moist soil. Seed prolifically. Invasiveness Note: English bluebell is naturalized or invasive in parts of the Midwest. Name Note: “Bluebell” is not the same as “bluebells,” a term that is applied to members of the Mertensia genus of the Forget-me-not family (Boraginaceae).

Bluebell (Endymion non-scriptus)

Native Alternatives:

VIRGINIA BLUEBELLS. Family: Borage, Forget-me-not (Boraginaceae). Genus: Mertensia (M. virginica). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Pink buds open into nodding bright blue trumpet-like long-lasting though ephemeral flowers March to May. “Few plants exist that are necessary for a garden to be complete. This is one of them.”¹⁶ Cultivation: Sun/shade. Medium moist or average garden soil. Slowly forms colonies. Note: Threatened in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Attracts butterflies, skippers, hummingbird moths, and hummingbirds. The primary pollinators are nectar-seeking and pollen-collecting long-tongued bees. Name Note: Named “Virginia” (probably where the flowers were first were identified), but are native as far north as Minnesota.

Virginia bluebells (Mertensia virginica)

More Native Alternatives:

GREEK VALERIAN, p. 10; INDIGO, pp. 111–12; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38; also see native alternatives to CROCUS, p. 27; and native alternatives to HYACINTH, p. 52.

Nonnative:

BUGLOSS, SIBERIAN BUGLOSS, HEARTLEAF BRUNNERA, FALSE FORGET-ME-NOT. Family: Forget-me-not (Boraginaceae). Genus: Brunnera (B. macrophylla). Origin: Eastern Europe, Asia. Height: 12–18 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Small clusters of blue flowers. Large heartshaped leaves. Cultivation: Sun/shade. Moist and very moist soil. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive in parts of the Midwest.

Bugloss (Brunnera macrophylla)

Native Alternatives:

BLUETS, p. 32; CANADIAN WILD GINGER, p. 76; GREEK VALERIAN, p. 10; MOSS PHLOX, p. 48; VIRGINIA BLUEBELLS, p. 18; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38.

Nonnative:

CANDYTUFT. Family: Mustard (Cruciferae, Brassicaceae). Genus: Iberis (I. sempervirens). There are cultivars. Origin: Iberia, now known as Spain. Height: 9–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Mounds of white (sometimes red or pink) flowers. Needle-like foliage on woody stems forms carpets. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained soil. Mulching. Pruning. Self-seeds profusely. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive in parts of the Midwest.

Candytuft (Iberis sempervirens)

Native Alternatives:

ROCKCRESS, ALPINE ROCKCRESS, WALL ROCKCRESS. Family: Mustard/Cabbage (Brassicaceae, Cruciferae). Genus: Arabis (A. albida, A. alpina). Height: 12–18 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Mounds of white or pink spring and early summer flowers. Woolly gray-green evergreen foliage. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained soil; LYRE-LEAVED ROCKCRESS, LYRATE ROCKCRESS (A. lyrata). Height: 4–16 inches. Ornamental Attributes: White flowers April to July. Cultivation: Sun. Dry soil. HAIRY ROCKCRESS (A. hirsuta). Height: 2 feet. Note: Some species of native rockcress are threatened or endangered in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Arabis species host many species of butterflies including the mustard white (Pieris oleracea), falcate orangetip (Anthocharis midea), olympia marble (Euchloe olympia), and checkered white (Pontia protodice). The pupae of falcate orangetip overwinter in the plants. The small flowers attract butterflies and other interesting and beneficial nectar- or pollen-seeking insects including bees, flower flies, and dance flies.

Rockcress (Arabis alpina)

Falcate orangetip (Anthocharis midea)

Checkered white (Pontia protodice)

Flower fly (Syrphidae)

NORTHERN BEDSTRAW, WILD BABY’S BREATH. Family: Madder, Bedstraw (Rubiaceae). Genus: Galium (G. boreale). Height: 6–40 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Showy clusters of tiny white flowers June, July. Whorls of small, needle-like leaves that are fragrant when dry. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Dry to wet soils. Nature Note: Attracts flower flies and other small nectarseeking insects. Native Note: There are other native species. Nonnative Note: Do not confuse with nonnative invasive yellow bedstraw (G. verum).

Northern bedstraw (Galium boreale)

GROUNDPLUM MILKVETCH. Family: Pea/Bean (Fabaceae). Genus: Milkvetch (Astragalus) (A. crassicarpus). Height: 6–15 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Purple/white flowers in April/May; reclining plant. Cultivation: Sun. Dry soil. Nature Note: Plants in the Pea family host butterflies and enrich the soil with nitrogen. Notes: See Thomas Nuttall note in the appendix. Endangered in parts of the Midwest.

More Native Alternatives:

COMMON CINQUEFOIL, p. 16; GOLDEN RAGWORT, p. 35; GREEK VALERIAN, p. 10; MOSS PHLOX, p. 48; WOODLAND STONECROP, pp. 132–33.

Groundplum milkvetch (Astragalus crassicarpus)

Nonnative:

CELANDINE. Family: Poppy (Papaveraceae). Genus: Chelidonium (C. majus). Origin: Europe, Asia. Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Yellow flowers are smaller versions of celandine poppy. Cultivation: Light shade. Moist soil. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive throughout the Midwest.

Celandine (Chelidonium majus)

Native Alternatives:

CELANDINE POPPY, WOOD POPPY, FLAMING POPPY. Family: Poppy (Papaveraceae). Genus: Stylophorum (S. diphyllum). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Fuzzy buds produce large yellow flowers March to May and occasionally in summer. Hairy oval seedpods. Deeply lobed leaves remain intact to fall. Broken stems produce yellow sap. “People are invariably drawn towards the plants regardless of other plants in flower at the time. One of the finest wild flowers for bright, effective spring color.”¹⁷ The yellow flowers provide a striking color contrast to VIRGINIA BLUEBELLS, which bloom at the same time (p. 18). Cultivation: Dappled sun/light shade. Medium moist and well-drained average garden soil. Nature Note: It is believed that bees pollinate the flowers. Ants are attracted to the seeds’ fleshy edible appendages (elaiosomes) and distribute the seeds. Mammalian herbivores avoid the foliage.

Celandine poppy (Stylophorum diphyllum)

MARSH MARIGOLD, COWSLIP. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Caltha (C. palustris). Height: 8–24 inches. Ornamental Attributes: “Clusters of brilliant yellow flowers of the buttercup type.”¹⁸ April to June. Round, glossy leaves. The plant goes dormant in summer. Cultivation: Sun/part shade. Extremely moist or wet soil. Nature Note: The nectar and pollen primarily attract bees such as honeybees and beneficial insects, including the giant bee fly (Bombylius major). Two leaf beetles species are sometimes found on the foliage. Chipmunks (p. 14) eat the seeds but mammalian herbivores avoid the foliage.

Marsh marigold (Caltha palustris)

More Native Alternatives:

BUTTERCUPS, p. 14; COMMON CINQUEFOIL, p. 16; GOLDEN RAGWORT, p. 35.

Nonnative:

COLUMBINE, ALPINE COLUMBINE. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Aquilegia (A. alpina); EUROPEAN COLUMBINE (A. vulgaris). There are cultivars and hybrids. Origin: Europe. Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Blue, white, or purple bell- or tubular-shaped flowers with spurred petals. The 3-lobed leaves are often blue-green. Cultivar seedlings do not grow to original type. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Moist well-drained soil. Invasiveness Note: European columbine is naturalized or invasive throughout the Midwest.

Alpine columbine (Aquilegia alpina)

Native Alternatives:

AMERICAN COLUMBINE, CANADIAN COLUMBINE, EASTERN COLUMBINE, RED COLUMBINE, WILD COLUMBINE. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Aquilegia (A. canadensis). Height: 2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: “The form of the flower is unique and exquisitely beautiful. The petals are lengthened into hollow spurs in shape like trumpets with a drop of nectar in each of the closed ends.”¹⁹ The red and yellow flowers bloom April to June. The 3-lobed leaves are often blue-green. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Well-drained moist to dry soil. “Easy to establish in a backyard garden and guarantees visits from hummingbirds.”²⁰ Seedlings do grow to original type. Nature Note: “The native wild columbine is the primary host for the columbine duskywing (Erynnis lucilius).”²¹ The deep-throated flowers are pollinated by hummingbirds, bees, and the white-lined sphinx, white-lined hawk moth (Hyles lineata), notable for its long tongue. American columbine attracts the Delaware skipper butterfly (Anatrytone logan), unusual for seeking nectar by crawling deep into the throats of tube-like flowers.

American columbine (Aquilegia canadensis)

CUTLEAF TOOTHWORT. Family: Mustard/cabbage (Brassicaceae, Cruciferae). Genus: Dentaria, Cardamine (D. or C. concatenata or D. or C. laciniata). Height: 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Spring show of pink, white, or purplish flowers April to June. Clumps of cut-leaved foliage slowly create patches. Cultivation: Light shade. Moist well-drained soil; CRINKLEROOT TOOTHWORT (D. or C. diphylla). White flowers fade to pink. Nature Note: The Mustard family hosts many butterfly species, including the mustard white butterfly (Pieris oleracea), checkered white (Pontia protodice) (p. 20), and olympia marble (Euchloe olympia). The nectar and/or pollen attract adult early spring butterflies, long-tongued and short-tongued bees, and the giant bee fly (Bombylius major). The now-extinct passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) ate toothwort tubers.

Cutleaf toothwort (Cardamine concatenata)

More Native Alternatives:

BANEBERRY, p. 24; BLUE COHOSH, p. 25; EARLY MEADOW-RUE, p. 24; FRINGED BLEEDING HEART, p. 17.

Nonnative:

COLUMBINE MEADOW-RUE. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Thalictrum (T. aquilegifolium); YELLOW MEADOW-RUE (T. flavum). There are cultivars. Origin: Europe, Asia. Height: 2–4 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Pink, white, or yellow flowers. Columbine-like foliage. Cultivation: Light shade. Moist, wet, or medium soil.

Yellow meadow-rue (Thalictrum flavum)

Native Alternatives:

EARLY MEADOW-RUE. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Thalictrum (T. dioicum). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: “In early April the staminate plant sends up a stem that at the summit divides and subdivides, bearing numbers of tiny, nodding, greenish yellow tassels, shedding pollen in abundance. Its graceful foliage is its greatest charm; the leaves are twice or thrice compound. After a rain the leaves, silvery with drops of water, possess an exquisite beauty.”²² It blooms into June, bearing flowers some people perceive as being white and yellow. Cultivation: Light shade. Medium moist to well-drained average garden soil. Nature Note: Attractive to bees, butterflies, and birds. Chiefly pollinated by wind.

Early meadow-rue (Thalictrum dioicum)

Baneberry (Actaea pachypoda)

Red baneberry (Actaea rubra)

More Native Buttercup Family Alternatives:

AMERICAN COLUMBINE, p. 22; BANEBERRY, WHITE BANEBERRY, DOLL’S EYES. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Actaea (A. pachypoda). Height: 1–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Pretty feathery fragrant white flowers in May, June and striking white late summer or early fall berries that “resemble the eyes of old-fashioned china dolls, hence the common name.”²³ Airy columbine-like foliage, thick red stalks. Cultivation: Shade. Average garden soil; RED BANEBERRY (A. rubra). Red berries. Cultivation: Shade. Wet to average garden soil. Note: Threatened or rare in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Baneberry flowers lack nectar but they do provide pollen to visiting insects, mainly halictid bees. The common name “baneberry” refers to the fruit’s toxicity to humans, but it is relished by birds like the yellow-bellied sapsucker and the American robin, which help distribute the seeds to new areas. Mammalian herbivores avoid the foliage. Nonnative Note: Do not confuse native baneberry species with European baneberries.

Yellowbellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius)

More Native Alternatives:

BLUE COHOSH. Family: Barberry (Berberidaceae). Genus: Caulophyllum (C. thalictroides). Height: Usually less than 2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Airy lobed leaves resemble columbine and meadow-rue. The foliage fills empty spaces left by ephemerals. Bears clusters of attractive yellow-green flowers April to June. Metallic blue berries late summer and fall. Cultivation: Shade. Medium moist or average garden soil. Nature Note: Bees and other beneficial insects seek the nectar. Birds seek the fruit.

Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides)

Grass Family Native Alternatives:

PRAIRIE JUNEGRASS. Family: Grass (Gramineae, Poaceae). Genus: Koeleria (K. macrantha, K. cristata, K. pyramidata). Height: 1–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Eye-catching clumps of graceful fine-leaved grass. Fuzzy silvery white spikes of flowers May to July but always in June followed by lustrous silver-green seed heads. Cultivation: Sun/shade. Well-drained medium dry to dry soil. Note: Endangered in parts of the Midwest.

Prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha)

NORTHERN SWEETGRASS. Genus: Hierochloe (H. hirta). Origin: Circumpolar: North America and Europe. Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Glossy, vanilla-scented green leaves and white spring flowers. Cultivation: Sun, light shade. Wet, moist to average garden soil. Spreads slowly. Nonnative Note: Do not confuse the native grass with nonnative sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). Native American Note: Used ceremonially and as incense.

TUFTED HAIRGRASS. Genus: Deschampsia (D. caespitosa or cespitosa). Origin: Circumpolar: United States, Europe, Asia. Height: 1–4 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Airy, spring and midsummer flowers in shades of pale green or yellow change to dark purplish, then silvery and obscure the clumps of wiry dark green foliage. Foliage and seeds provide winter interest. Cultivation: Sun/part shade. Medium, moist or wet soil. Salt tolerant. Note: Rare in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Native grasses provide a large group of skippers and moth species with opportunities for reproduction.²⁴ Birds eat the seeds and seek shelter in native grasses; grassland birds prefer native grasses for nesting.

Northern sweetgrass (Hierochloe hirta)

Tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa)

Nonnative:

COMFREY. Family: Forget-me-not, Borage (Boraginaceae). Genus: Symphytum (S. officinale). There are other species and cultivars. Origin: Europe, Asia. Height: 3–4 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Curled cluster of yellow, whitish, or pinkish flowers fading to blue. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Moist soil. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive throughout the Midwest.

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale)

Native Alternatives:

WILD COMFREY. Family: Forget-me-not, Borage (Boraginaceae). Genus: Cynoglossum (C. virginianum). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Numerous pale blue, violet, or white May and June flowers similar to a forget-me-not. Large hairy leaves clasp hairy stems. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Moist, medium soil and tolerates dry shade. Note: Extirpated in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Hosts the gray hairstreak butterfly (Strymon melinus). Attracts adult butterflies of several species.

Wild comfrey (Cynoglossum virginianum var. boreale)

Gray hairstreak butterfly (Strymon melinus)

More Native Alternatives:

GREEK VALERIAN, p. 10; HOARY PUCCOON, p. 36; NORTHERN BEDSTRAW, p. 20; ROCKCRESS, p. 20; VIRGINIA BLUEBELLS, p. 18; VIRGINIA WATERLEAF, p. 48; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38; WILD GERANIUM, p. 47.

Nonnative:

CROCUS. Family: Iris (Iridaceae). Genus: Crocus (C. luteus). Origin: Middle East, Mediterranean. Holland is famous for exporting Dutch or giant crocus (C. vernus) and snow crocus (C. Tommasinianius, C. chrysanthus) that originated in the Middle East. Height: 2–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Yellow, white, lavender, purple flowers bloom briefly in March, April. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Welldrained soil. Ephemerals die when mowed before the leaves naturally die. Overcrowding causes decline. Nature Note: Squirrels, deer, chipmunks, mice, rabbits, skunks (in search of insects, worms, and organic fertilizers), voles, and birds dig up crocuses and some of these animals eat the corms/bulbs. Gardeners combat this with homemade and commercial repellents, protective barriers, plastic owls, and other ingenious deterrents.

Crocus (Crocus luteus)

Native Alternatives:

AMERICAN PASQUEFLOWER, WILD CROCUS, BLUE TULIP. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Pulsatilla (P. patens) (formerly included in the genus Anemone). Height: 2–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Considered to be harbingers of spring. Large, delicate orange-centered blue-violet, sometimes white, flowers from March to May. Feathery seed heads. Hairy stems and leaves protect the plants from chilly early spring weather. “These are one of the first and most spectacular prairie flowers of spring.”²⁵ Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained, dry to medium soil. (Best in sandy soil.) Nature Note: Bees eagerly seek the pollen produced by these early blooming flowers. The foliage does not interest mammalian herbivores.

PRAIRIE SMOKE, LONG-PLUMED PURPLE AVENS, OLD MAN’S WHISKERS. Family: Rose (Rosaceae). Genus: Geum (G. triflorum). Height: 4–16 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Showy, nodding pink to reddishpurple flowers in May, June. Feathery plumed fruits. Evergreen leaves turn red in fall. Cultivation: Sun, light shade. Dry to average garden soil. Note: Threatened in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: The flowers look as though they are still in bud stage, so small bees crawl inside to get the nectar and pollen. As an early-flowering plant, it is an important food source for insects emerging from hibernation. See Lewis and Clark note in the appendix.

American pasqueflower (Pulsatilla patens)

BLOODROOT. Family: Poppy (Papaveraceae). Genus: Sanguinaria (S. canadensis). Height: 6–10 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Brilliantly white, daisy-shaped flowers bloom briefly late February to May. “One of the most beautiful of American wild flowers.”²⁶ “Bloodroot is a good example of the continued blurring of the distinction between wild flowers and garden plants.”²⁷ Lobed leaves create groundcover-like colonies. Broken stalks produce red juice. Though considered ephemeral, the foliage often persists to frost in moist soil. Cultivation: Light shade. Well-drained, dry or moderately moist soil. Nature Note: Ants collect, eat, and spread the seed’s elaiosomes or appendages. Butterflies seek nectar but search in vain; the flowers offer only pollen, sought by beneficial flies and beetles that in return pollinate the flowers. Mammalian herbivores rarely eat the foliage. Historical Note: In the 1600s, French explorer Samuel de Champlain observed that the root of our native bloodroot “makes a crimson dye.”²⁸

Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis)

Prairie violet (Viola pedatifida)

Downy yellow violet (Viola pubescens)

TRIANGLE-LEAVED VIOLET. Family: Violet (Violaceae). Genus: Viola (V. emarginata). Height: 4–8 inches. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Medium soil; COMMON BLUE VIOLET (V. sororia, V. papilonaceae). Ornamental Attributes: Both species display purple or blue flowers March to May.

More Violet Native Alternatives:

ALPINE VIOLET, LABRADOR VIOLET (V. labradorica). Height: 3–6 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Weeks of bright lavender flowers. Purplish-green foliage looks good all season; BIRDSFOOT VIOLET, PANSY VIOLET (V. pedata). Height: 6 inches. Ornamental Attributes: “The violet flowers are spectacular.”²⁹ Bloom April to June, and all summer if regularly watered. Deeply lobed leaves. Cultivation: Sun. Dry well-drained soil; PRAIRIE VIOLET (V. pedatifida). Purple flowers April to June. Grass-like leaves. Medium soil; DOWNY YELLOW VIOLET (V. pubescens). Yellow flowers April to June; MISSOURI VIOLET (V. missouriensis). Purple flowers April, May. Note: Some violet species are endangered or threatened in parts of the Midwest. There are many species of wild perennial native violets, including white and bicolored, that are commercially available. Nature Note: Wild perennial native violets are the sole host plants for many butterflies including the Aphrodite fritillary (Speyeria aphrodite), regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia), silver-bordered fritillary (Boloria selene), and meadow fritillary (Boloria bellona), which is “attracted to gardens that are near wet meadows.”³⁰ Native violets are the sole host plants for many species of greater fritillaries, including the great spangled fritillary (Speyeria cybele). This butterfly’s caterpillars feed by night and hide by day. By the time the female lays her eggs on or near the larval host plants in the summer, they have often died back. This large butterfly “frequently stops to nectar, especially at milkweeds, where several adults can be found at one time on a single flowerhead.”³¹Violets are among the preferred host plants for many fritillary butterfly species,, including the variegated fritillary (Euptoieta claudia). Violet nectar attracts many species of adult butterflies. The cobweb skipper (Hesperia metea) prefers birdsfoot violet nectar. Violets are pollinated by an oligolege bee, Andrena violae, a specialist in violets and wood sorrel. Ants carry violet seeds to new locations, fulfilling the vital role of seed dispersal. Solitary bees (among other insects) pollinate violets. When birdsfoot violet fruits become ripe, they are explosively ejected up to 15 feet.³² Migrating birds feed their young with enormous quantities of the tiny insects violets attract. Hummingbirds (p. 10) visit violets for both nectar and small insects. Nonnative Note: Do not confuse native violets with the common European/English violet (V. odorata).

Aphrodite fritillary (Speyeria aphrodite) on butterfly milkweed

Regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia)

Silver-bordered fritillary (Boloria selene)

Meadow fritillary (Boloria bellona) on eastern daisy

great spangled fritillary (Speyeria cybele)

variegated fritillary (Euptoieta claudia)

Cobweb skipper (Hesperia metea)

variegated fritillary caterpillar (Euptoieta claudia)

YELLOW TROUT LILY, DOGTOOTH VIOLET. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Erythronium (E. americanum). Height: 4–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: “This little spring lily of the woodlands is a fascinating plant.”³³ Showy yellow long-blooming flowers from March to May. Leaves are often variegated. “They [trout lilies] are, of course, most effective when seen in large congregations, fluttering and dancing in the breeze, like the Daffodils.”³⁴ Cultivation: Dappled sunlight. Moist, well-drained soil. These ephemerals create impressively large colonies that live three hundred to four hundred years; WHITE FAWNLILY, TROUT LILY (E. albidum). Note: Trout lilies are endangered in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Trout lilies attract butterflies, including skippers. The primary pollinators are nectar-seeking longtongued and short-tongued bees. Honeybees and short-tongued bees collect the pollen. Trout lilies have a specialist bee, the oligolectic trout lily bee (Andrena erythroni). White-tailed deer damage is usually minor because of the low stature and ephemeral nature of the foliage. Note: See John Josselyn note in the appendix.

Yellow trout lily (Erythronium americanum)

Honeybee (Apis mellifera)

White fawnlily (Erythronium albidum)

GOLDENSEAL, ORANGE/YELLOW ROOT. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Hydrastis (H. canadensis). Origin: North America, Japan. Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: A single white flower in April, May ornaments the center of the maple shaped upper leaf. The red fruit resembles a raspberry. Golden-hued roots. Cultivation: Shade. Moist or average garden soil. Note: Threatened or endangered in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Small bees are the primary pollinators. Visitors include beneficial flies and larger bees. Birds and small mammals eat the berries and help to distribute the seeds.

TWINLEAF. Family: Barberry (Berberidaceae). Genus: Jeffersonia (J. diphylla). Height: 4–8 inches. Ornamental Attributes: White flowers in April to May. Pear-shaped fruit. Completely divided blue-green leaves. Cultivation: Shade/part shade. Moist or average garden soil. Nature Note: Flowers attract butterflies. Ants disperse the seeds. Nomenclature Note: Genus name honors President Thomas Jefferson.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis)

Twinleaf (Jeffersonia diphylla)

Bellwort (Uvularia grandiflora)

BELLWORT, LARGE-FLOWERED BELLWORT, MERRYBELLS. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Uvularia (U. grandiflora). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: A single fragrant yellow twisted-bell-shaped flower droops from the tip of a stem from April to June. Clumps of graceful foliage last through fall. Spreads slowly by rhizomes. Cultivation: Light, medium, full shade. Average garden soil; SESSILELEAF BELLWORT, WILD OATS (U. sessilifolia). Nature Note: Bumblebees, mason bees, halictid bees, andrenid bees, and beneficial flies suck nectar or collect pollen from bellwort flowers. Ants seek the edible seeds and help distribute them. The flowers decline in abundance in wooded areas when there is an overpopulation of deer.

FRINGED MILKWORT, BIRD-ON-THE-WING. Family: Polygalaceae. Genus: Polygala (P. paucifolia). Genus Note: The only Polygalaceae genus native to the United States. Height: 3–6 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Dainty fringed orchid-like flowers with two flaring pink-purple wings May into June. Cultivation: Moist soil. Nature Note: Insects pollinate these showy flowers; SENECA ROOT, SNAKEROOT, RATTLESNAKEROOT (P. senega). Light shade. Dry soil. Nature Note: Polygala attracts bees and interesting beneficial flies.

Fringed milkwort (Polygala paucifolia)

BLUETS, LONGLEAF BLUETS, HOUSTONIA. Family: Bedstraw, Madder, Coffee (Rubiaceae). Genus: Hedyotis or Houstonia (H. longifolia). Height: 2–10 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Large blue, lavender, white, or purple flowers June to September. Cultivation: Sun/part sun. Dry and moist soils; LANCELEAF BLUETS (H. lanceolata). Height: 1 foot. Cultivation: Moist or dry soil; LARGE HOUSTONIA, VENUS’ PRIDE, WIDE-LEAVED BLUETS (H. purpurea); QUAKER LADIES, INNOCENTS, BLUE-EYED BABIES (H. caerulea). Yellow-eyed oversized blue flowers from April to July. Nature Note: The flowers attract small butterflies including checkerspot, copper and white butterflies, and skippers. They also draw long- and short-tongued bees and other interesting and beneficial insects, such as flower scarab beetles. Small bees are the primary pollinators. Quaker ladies “flowers are extremely sensitive to atmospheric conditions; at night and in rainy weather, the blossoms bend down, to become erect again when sunshine appears.”³⁵

Bluets (Houstonia longifolia)

More Native Alternatives:

BLUE-EYED GRASSES, p. 44; CUTLEAF TOOTHWORT, p. 23; EASTERN FALSE RUE ANEMONE, p. 42; GARDEN PHLOX, p. 108; GOLDEN RAGWORT, p. 35; HEPATICA, p. 51; PRAIRIE SMOKE, p. 28; SHOOTING STARS, p. 66; SPRING BEAUTY, p. 65; TRILLIUMS, pp. 67, 75; VIOLET WOODSORREL, p. 72; VIRGINIA BLUEBELLS, p. 18; YELLOW STARGRASS, p. 35.

Nonnative:

DAFFODIL, JONQUIL. Family: Daffodil (Amaryllidaceae). Genus: Narcissus. Origin: Mediterranean region. Height: 4–24 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Trumpet-centered yellow, white, or bicolored blooms. These ephemerals have persistent strap-like leaves that grow yellow and tattered as they slowly die. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained soil. Invasiveness Note: The following are invasive or naturalized throughout much of the Midwest: DAFFODIL (N. pseudonarcissus); JONQUIL (N. jonquilla); NONESUCH DAFFODIL (N. × incomparabilis Mill. (pro sp.) [poeticus × pseudonarcissus]); POET’S NARCISSUS (N. poeticus) and PRIMROSE PEERLESS (N. × medioluteus Mill. (pro sp.) [poeticus × tazetta], also called N. biflorus W. Curtis, Narcissus poetaz hort. ex L.H. Bailey). Nature Note: Squirrels, chipmunks, and skunks may dig up the bulbs. Note: See John Josselyn note in the appendix.

Daffodil (Narcissus)

Native Alternatives:

CELANDINE POPPY, p. 21.

GOLDEN ALEXANDERS, GOLDEN ZIZIA. Family: Parsley/Carrot (Apiaceae, Umbelliferae). Genus: Zizia (Z. aurea); HEART-LEAVED GOLDEN ALEXANDERS, MEADOW ZIZIA (Z. aptera). Height: 1–3 feet. Note: Threatened in parts of the Midwest. Ornamental Attributes: “The golden-yellow clusters” often “get into the race in April and are especially noticeable because of the pure brilliant yellow of the massed florets.”³⁶ The showy, long-lasting flower clusters persist to June followed by long-lasting ribbed seed heads. In fall, clumps of compound foliage turn red or yellow. Cultivation: Sun, light shade. Well-drained or average garden soil. Nature Note: See Parsley family nature note following purplestem angelica.

More Yellow-Flowered Parsley Family Native Alternatives:

MEADOW PARSNIP. Genus: Thaspium (T. trifoliatum); PRAIRIE PARSLEY, p. 201; YELLOW PIMPERNEL. Genus: Taenidia (T. integerrima). Note: See Thomas Nuttall note in the appendix.

Golden alexanders (Zizia aurea)

White-Flowered Parsley Family Native Alternatives:

PURPLESTEM ANGELICA. Genus: Angelica (A. atropurpurea). Height: 2–7 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Large, flat white flower heads May, June. Conspicuous seed heads. Purple stems. Divided foliage turns colorful in fall. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Average garden soil; HAIRY ANGELICA (A. venenosa); SWEET CICELY, p. 49; Summer bloomers: MARYLAND BLACK SNAKEROOT, p. 154; COW PARSNIP, p. 154; RATTLESNAKE MASTER, p. 122. Nature Note: The Parsley family is the sole host for the Missouri/Ozark woodland swallowtail (Papilio joanae), whose larvae have been found on meadow parsnip, yellow pimpernel, and golden alexander, and the parsnip or black or eastern black swallowtail (Papilio polyxenes). Swallowtails produce two or three broods, and any pupae that overwinter on or near Parsley family foliage emerge as adults in April and May. A variety of native Carrot/Parsley species extends the breeding season for these butterflies. Leaving the host plants in place through spring enables any overwintering pupae to survive. Blooms of plants in the Parsley family attract adult butterflies like the pearl crescent (Phyciodes tharos), eastern tailed-blue (Everes comyntas), American copper (Lycaena phlaeas), and clouded sulphur (Colias philodice). The inconspicuous tiny black bee Andrena ziziae is a golden alexander specialist. Nonnative Invasive Note: Do not confuse native Parsley family flowers with the nonnative yellow wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) or white Queen Anne’s lace (Dacus carota), both invasive in the Midwest. Do not confuse native angelicas with European garden angelica (A. archangelica) or Japanese angelica (A. elata), both invasive in parts of the Midwest. Dill, Parsley, and Fennel are also nonnatives that are invasive in parts of the Midwest.

Purplestem angelica (Angelica atropurpurea)

Ozark swallowtail (Papilio joanae)

American copper (Lycaena phlaeas)

Eastern tailed-blue (Everes comyntas)

Pearl crescent (Phyciodes tharos)

black swallowtail with larva and pupa (Papilio polyxenes)

clouded sulphur (Colias philodice)

More Native Alternatives:

GOLDEN RAGWORT. Family: Aster (Asteraceae). Genus: Senecio, Packera (S. aureus or P. aurea); PRAIRIE RAGWORT (S. or P. plattensis). Height: 1–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: “The Golden ragwort stands as a surprise and an astonishment among the flowers of early spring, it is so deeply, so goldenly yellow.”³⁷ One-inch blooms May to July. Slowly creates colonies. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Golden Ragwort is more shade tolerant than some other ragwort species. Wet, medium, or dry soil. Hay Fever Note: Ragwort is not ragweed and does not cause hay fever. Nature Note: Some ragwort species host the northern metalmark butterfly (lephelisca borealis). Pollinators include beneficial flies (syrphid flies, tachinid flies, thick-headed flies) and small bees such as little carpenter, nomadine cuckoo, green metallic, and other halictine bees. Golden ragwort hosts the “gem” moth (Orthonama obstipata). Mammalian herbivores usually don’t bother this plant.

YELLOW STARGRASS, COMMON GOLDSTAR. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Some experts place this flower in the Daffodil family (Amaryllidaceae). Genus: Hypoxis (H. hirsuta). Height: 3–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Clusters of “bright yellow six-pointed starry flowers, greenish on the undersides are hardly ever out of bloom from . . . May until the frosts have silenced them.”³⁸ This reliable perennial has grass-like leaves. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Well-drained average garden soil. Nature Note: This flower is cross-pollinated by small female pollen-collecting bees, interesting and beneficial flies, and pollen-feeding beetles.

Golden ragwort (Packera aurea)

Yellow stargrass (Hypoxis hirsuta)

WOOD BETONY, CANADIAN LOUSEWORT. Family: Snapdragon/Figwort (Scrophulariaceae). Genus: Pedicularis (P. canadensis). Height: 5–18 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Dense clusters of striking inchlong tubular hooded yellow or red (or sometimes both) blooms from April to June. Green fern-like long-lasting leaves. Cultivation: Sun, light shade. Dry or welldrained average garden soil. Native American Note: Some tribes used this plant for love charms.³⁹ Nature Note: The primary pollinators are long-tongued bees, including queen bumblebees and mason bees. Shorttongued bees collect pollen from the flowers.

Wood betony (Pedicularis canadensis)

HOARY PUCCOON. Family: Forget-me-not, Borage (Boraginaceae). Genus: Lithospermum (L. canescens). Height: 6–18 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Dense clusters of bright yellow to deep orange flowers April to June. Gray-green, white-down-covered leaves. Cultivation: Sun. Dry or medium soil. Native American Note: Natives extracted red dye from the roots of this “most famous of the Indian puccoons (dye plants).”⁴⁰ Nature Note: “Hoary puccoon is the primary nectar source for spring grassland skippers like the cobweb skipper (Hesperia metea),”⁴¹ whose hosts are little and big bluestem grasses. It also attracts dusted skipper (Atrytonopsis hianna), which lays her eggs on big bluestem grass and spends the winter there. Hoary puccoon attracts butterflies, longtongued bees, and skippers, including the duskywing skipper (Erynnis spp.) and the common sootywing (Pholisora catullus). Spring-season bee flies, including the giant bee fly (Bombylius major), visit the flowers.

Juvenal’s duskywing (Erynnis juvenalis)

Hoary puccoon (Lithospermum canescens)

Common sootywing (Pholisora catullus)

WILD LUPINE, SUNDIAL LUPINE. Family: Pea/Bean (Fabaceae, Leguminosae). Genus: Lupinus (L. perennis). Height: 2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: This blue alternative to daffodils features spectacular long-lasting fragrant blue-purple flowers April/May to midsummer. Spoke-shaped leaves. Small hairy seedpods. Cultivation: Sun. Tolerates light shade. Well-drained or dry soil. Prefers loose, sandy soil. Note: Threatened in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Sole host plant for the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Plebejus Melissa) (p. 16). This butterfly’s eggs remain on its host plant over the winter; disposing of host plants that hold overwintering butterfly eggs kills the eggs. In spring, the larvae are tended by ants attracted by the honey glands and tentacles of the larvae. Dotted mint, spotted beebalm (Monarda fustulosa) (p. 86) is this endangered butterfly’s favorite nectar. For the best Karner blue results, seek out local nurseries that carry wild lupine derived from state or local plants, because research suggests that, “Michigan’s Karner blue butterflies will not lay eggs on Wisconsin’s wild lupine.”⁴² Wild lupine also hosts yellow butterflies (called sulphurs) and blue butterflies including eastern tailed-blue (Cupido [Everes] comyntas) (p. 34), and west of the Mississippi River, silvery blue (Glaucopsyche lygdamus). The adult butterflies seek the nectar. Wild lupine also hosts Persius duskywing (Erynnis persius) and the frosted elfin (Callophrys irus) (p. 112), whose pupae overwinter on their host plant or in leaf litter and which appear as adults in April and May. Wild lupine has been planted as part of Karner blue butterfly conservation efforts, and it seems to be helping them, as well as other endangered butterflies.⁴³ Wild lupine also hosts numerous other species of butterfly throughout the Midwest, including the gray hairstreak (Strymon melinus), whose pupae overwinter on the host plants. Blue flowers attract bees, which are blind to red. Bumblebees (p. 18) are lupine’s most effective pollinators. Invasiveness Note: Hybridization with other species, especially Washington lupine (Lupinus polyphyllus)⁴⁴ and cultivars such as ‘Rainbow’ and ‘Russell’ lupines, is eliminating stands of native wild lupine. This deprives the endangered Karner blue butterfly (and the other endangered butterflies that lay their eggs on wild lupine) of reproduction sites. For information on the Karner Blue Butterfly Conservation Initiative, access: http://www.butterflyrecovery.org/species_profiles/karner_blue/.

Wild lupine (Lupinus perennis)

More Native Alternatives:

BELLWORT, p. 32; TROUT LILIES, p. 30; WILD HYACINTH, p. 52; also see native alternatives to CROCUS, p. 27; HYACINTH, p. 52; and TULIP, p. 74.

Nonnative:

DAME’S ROCKET, WILD PHLOX. Family: Mustard/Cabbage (Brassicaceae, Cruciferae). Genus: Hesperis (H. matronalis). Origin: Europe, Central Asia. Height: 2–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Pink, purple, or white flowers May to July that resemble a phlox.⁴⁵ Long seedpods. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Medium or moist soil. Vigorous self-seeder. Goes dormant in summer, creating large gaps. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive in much of the Midwest. “Dame’s rocket was introduced as a garden plant during the Colonial period.”⁴⁶ It was a popular Midwest garden flower for hundreds of years and still is. In 1992, responsible garden experts called it a “good garden plant.”⁴⁷ In 1996, the Brooklyn Botanic Garden reported, “A few, like dame’s rocket, right now appear to be only slightly invasive but are on weed experts’ ‘to watch’ lists because it often takes decades for a plant to begin spreading out of control.”⁴⁸ The Brooklyn Botanic Garden’s 2006 Native Alternatives to Invasive Plants showed dame’s rocket as invasive in 11 states, some in the Midwest. USDA Plants identifies this plant as a noxious weed in 46 states. Note: Because dame’s rocket is often included in “wildflower” seed packets, they should not be purchased and if received, should be discarded.

Dame’s rocket (Hesperis matronalis)

Native Alternatives:

WILD BLUE PHLOX, WOODLAND PHLOX. Family: Phlox (Polemoniaceae). Genus: Phlox (P. divaricata). Height: 12–15 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Fragrant showy blue or violet long-blooming flowers April to June. Leaves are green through fall and conceal spaces left by ephemerals. “This little gem is one of the few blue-flowering plants in the woodland. . . . An area filled with Blue Phlox and Wild Geranium in full bloom is truly a photographer’s paradise.”⁴⁹ Cultivation: Sun/shade. Well-drained average garden soil; PRAIRIE PHLOX, DOWNY PHLOX (P. pilosa). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Bright pink flowers May to July. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Dry or well-drained average garden soil. Also: WILD SWEET WILLIAM (P. maculata). June to September. Full or partial sun. Average garden soil. Note: Some of these Phlox species are endangered or threatened in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: The Xerces Society recommends Phlox species as nectar plants for adult butterflies. Phlox hosts sphinx moths (Sphingidae), including the dot moth (Gazoryctra wielgusi), hummingbird hawk-moth (Macroglossum stellatarum), and the phlox (flower) moth (Schinia indiana), which feeds primarily on P. pilosa. The slender clearwing (Hemaris gracilis) and hummingbirds (p. 10) visit phlox flowers for nectar. This family attracts seedeating birds.

Wild blue phlox (Phlox divaricata)

Downy phlox (Phlox pilosa L. var. fulgida)

Hummingbird hawk-moth (Macroglossum stellatarum)

TOWER MUSTARD. Family: Mustard/Cabbage (Brassicaceae, Cruciferae). Genus: Rockcress: Arabis (A. glabra). Height: 2–4 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Dramatic towers of pale creamy-yellow flowers May to July. Long, stem-hugging seedpods. Waxy green foliage. Cultivation: Sun. Dry, well-drained or average soil. Note: Threatened in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Mustard family species host many butterflies including the mustard white butterfly (Pieris oleracea), falcate orangetip (Anthocharis midea) (p. 20), Olympia marble (Euchloe olympia), and checkered white (Pontia protodice) (p. 20). Olympia marble and falcate orange tip overwinter in their larval host plants. Small bees, flower flies, and various species of white butterflies (Pieridae) visit for nectar or pollen.

More Native Alternatives:

BEARDTONGUE, p. 181; BLUESTAR, p. 74; INDIGO, pp. 111–12 (some species bloom beginning in May); VIRGINIA WATERLEAF, p. 48; WILD GERANIUM, p. 47; WILD LUPINE, p. 37. For summer alternatives to DAME’S ROCKET, see p. 108.

Nonnative:

DRAGON ARUM, HIMALAYAN COBRA LILY. Family: Arum (Araceae). Genus: Dracunculus (D. vulgaris). Origin: China, Japan. Height: 3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Exoticlooking flowers resemble calla lilies, native green dragon, and Jack-in-the-pulpit. Heartshaped leaves. Goes dormant in summer. Red-orange berries in fall. Cultivation: Shade. Fertile moist soil.

Dragon arum (Dracunculus vulgaris)

Arum Family Native Alternatives:

JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. Family: Arum (Araceae). Genus: Arisaema (A. triphyllum). Height: 1–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Exotic-looking green or purplish, white- or brown-striped foliage. The tiny flowers are enclosed by red-blotched or flecked hoods (spathes) April to July. The three-parted leaves go dormant in summer. Showy red or orange berries in fall. Cultivation: Part sun/shade. Average to wet soil. Nature Note: Fungus gnats pollinate the flowers. Jack-in-the-pulpit is especially attractive as a host plant to the oligolectic thrip. The red berries attract wood thrushes, robins, and other fruit-eating birds. The plant expends so much energy as a female, it changes to a male plant in alternate years.

Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum)

Skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus)

SKUNK CABBAGE. Genus: Symplocarpus (S. foetidus). Height: 1–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Keeler wrote, “The first flower of our northern spring . . . has no great beauty that one should desire it, but is unusual in form and interesting in character.”⁵⁰ Its many small, inconspicuous greenish-yellow to dull purple flowers are enclosed by a large round green-spotted purple shell-like sheathing (spadix) February to April. If crushed, the large cabbage-like leaves produce an odor reminiscent of skunk. Bright scarlet berries. These plants are “wonderfully architectural,” and their “fragrance is exaggerated.”⁵¹ Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Moist soil. Occur naturally in wet soil. Perfect for low wet spots. Nature Note: Flies mainly pollinate the flowers, including flesh flies (Sarcophagidae), carrion flies (Calliphoridae), and various gnats attracted by the carrion-like appearance and odor of the flowers enhanced by the increased temperature maintained within the spathe during early spring. Skunk cabbage hosts the cattail borer moth (Bellura oblique) and ruby tiger moth (Phragmatobia fuliginosa). Spiders lurk within the spathe feeding on visiting insects. Snapping turtles are one of the few herbivores that eat the foliage. Nonnative Note: Do not confuse native skunk cabbage with Asian skunk cabbage (Lysichiton camtschatcense). Note: See John Josselyn note in the appendix.

Ruby tiger moth (Phragmatobia fuliginosa)

Ruby tiger moth caterpillar (Phragmatobia fuliginosa)

GREEN DRAGON, DRAGON ARUM. Family: Arum (Araceae). Genus: Arisaema (A. dracontium). Height: 1–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Looks like nonnative dragon arum. Goes dormant in summer. Showy red berries in fall. Cultivation: Sun/part shade. Average or moist soil. Nature Note: The insects pollinating green dragon flowers are simple flies, particularly fungus gnats. Wood thrushes and other birds eat the red berries. Mammalian herbivores, including white-tailed deer, rarely seek the foliage or corms. Note: See John Josselyn note in the appendix.

Another Native Alternative:

MAYAPPLE, MANDRAKE. Family: Barberry (Berberidaceae). Genus: Podophyllum (P. peltatum). Height: 12–18 inches. Ornamental Attributes: A showy white flower “like that of the white lily”⁵² seemingly hides beneath two deeply divided leaves in May. The fruit is round and green. Unusual umbrellalike leaves. Mayapples create long-lasting and lovely woodland scenes. Cultivation: Light shade. Takes sun. Well-drained or average garden soil. Nature Note: The flowers are pollinated by bumblebees and other pollen- or nectar-seeking long-tongued bees. Box turtles eat and distribute the seed. Mammalian herbivores avoid the bitter-tasting foliage.

Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum)

Nonnative:

EUROPEAN PASQUEFLOWER. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Pulsatilla (P. vulgaris). There are cultivars. Origin: Europe. Height: 9–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Reddish purple flowers in early spring. Feathery seed heads. Cultivation: Sun. Welldrained soil.

Native Alternative:

AMERICAN PASQUEFLOWER, p. 28.

European pasqueflower (Pulsatilla vulgaris)

Nonnative:

FALSE RUE ANEMONE, RUE-LEAVED ISOPYRUM. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Isopyrum (I. thalictroides). Origin: Europe. Height: 8 inches. Ornamental Attributes: An ephemeral anemone-like white spring flower. Cultivation: Light shade. Dry or moist soil.

False rue anemone (Isopyrum thalictroides)

Native Alternatives:

EASTERN FALSE RUE ANEMONE. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Enemion, Isopyrum (E. biternatum). Height: 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Blooms April to May. Creates “large drifts of pretty little white flowers with miniature columbine-like leaves. . . . Striking when planted with Virginia Bluebells;”⁵³ RUE ANEMONE. Genus: Thalictrum (T. thalictroides). Height: 4–8 inches. Ornamental Attributes: An entire month of clusters of cup-shaped pale pink and white anemone-like flowers March to May. Cultivation: Light/heavy shade. Well-drained soil. Nature Note: Rue anemones’ pollen primarily attracts small bees and beneficial flies.

BLOODROOT, p. 28. Also see native alternatives to CROCUS, p. 27.

Eastern false rue anemone (Isopyrum biternatum)

Rue anemone (Thalictrum thalictroides)

Nonnative:

FLOWERING ONION, ORNAMENTAL ONION. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Allium. Origin: Asia, Europe, North Africa. Height: 8 inches to 6 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Late spring to early summer purple, white, pink or yellow dome shaped flowers on leafless stems. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained soil.

Ornamental onions

Native Alternatives:

MEADOW GARLIC, WILD GARLIC, WILD ONION. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Allium (A. canadense). Height: 1–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Clusters of pink, lavender, or white flowers on leafless stems May to July. Clusters of tiny black seeds in fall. Massed plantings create stunning effects. Cultivation: Sun. Dry, medium, or wet soil. Nature Note: Attracts bees and flower flies.

More Native Alternatives:

See section beginning with NODDING PINK ONION, Summer, p. 154. Also: GOLDEN ALEXANDERS, p. 33; MILKWEED, pp. 70, 109, 144, 156–57, 171; PURPLESTEM ANGELICA, p. 34.

Meadow garlic (Allium canadense)

Nonnative:

FORGET-ME-NOT, TRUE FORGET-ME-NOT. Family: Borage (Boraginaceae). Genus: Myosotis (M. scorpioides). There are many species. Origin: Europe, Asia. Height: 6–8 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Yellow-eyed blue flowers. Cultivation: Sun. Moist or wet soil. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive throughout the Midwest.

Forget-me-nots (Myosotis scorpioides)

Native Alternatives:

NARROWLEAF BLUE-EYED GRASS. Family: Iris (Iridaceae). Genus: Sisyrinchium (S. angustifolium). Cultivation: Average garden soil; PRAIRIE BLUE-EYED GRASS (S. campestre). Dry soil. There are many species. Height: 4–12 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Deep blue flowers with a yellow eye from May to July and beyond can turn a prairie landscape “into a sea of blue.”⁵⁴ Ephemeral grasslike foliage. Cultivation: Sun. Tolerate light shade; WHITE BLUE-EYED GRASS (S. albidum). Note: Some species of blue-eyed grass are endangered or threatened in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Blue-eyed grass is pollinated by nectar- and pollenseeking bees and flower flies. The flowers of this genus “close up overnight and on rainy days, presumably when their pollinator stays home.”⁵⁵

White blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium albidum)

More Native Alternatives:

ANEMONE, p. 11; BLUETS, p. 32; RUE ANEMONE, p. 42; SPRING BEAUTY, p. 65; WILD COMFREY, p. 27.

Nonnative:

FOXGLOVE, PURPLE FOXGLOVE, COMMON FOXGLOVE. Family: Snapdragon/Figwort (Scrophulariaceae). Genus: Digitalis (D. purpurea). There are cultivars and hybrids and other species. Origin: Europe, Central Asia. Height: 2–4 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Cup-shaped biennial cream or purple flowers. Cultivation: Partial shade. Rich moist soil. Semi-sheltered location; GRECIAN FOXGLOVE (D. lanata). Origin: Europe. Height: 4–5 feet. Invasiveness Note: These and other nonnative foxgloves are naturalized or invasive in parts of the Midwest.

Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)

Native Alternatives:

LARGE BEARDTONGUE, LARGE FLOWERED BEARDTONGUE. Family: Snapdragon/Figwort (Scrophulariaceae). Genus: Penstemon (P. grandiflorus). Height: 2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Showy profusion of large (almost 2 inches) showy pink/lavender long-blooming (about 4 weeks) spikes of flowers May to July. Bluish-green leaves clasp pale waxy stems. Cultivation: Sun. Dry soil; PALE BEARDTONGUE (P. pallidus). Height: 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Purple-lined one-inch white or cream flowers; SHOWY BEARDTONGUE (P. cobea). Height: 2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Large (2-inch) purple flowers; TUBE PENSTEMON, WHITE WAND PENSTEMON (P. tubaeflorus). Height: 3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: White flowers. Also see Summer: BEARDTONGUE, p. 181; PURPLE FALSE FOXGLOVE and other native snapdragons, p. 121. Penstemon Cultivation: Requirements vary per species. Note: Some of these Penstemon species are endangered or extirpated in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: The Xerces Society recommends Penstemon species as nectar plants for adult butterflies. Hummingbirds seek the small insects the flowers attract plus the nectar, as do sphinx moths and long-tongued bees, including honeybees. Penstemon hosts the chalcedony midget moth (Elaphria chalcedonia). The foliage provides the caterpillars (larvae) with lifetime protection against hungry birds.

Large beardtongue (Penstemon grandiflorus)

More Native Alternatives:

INDIGO, pp. 111–12, WILD LUPINE, p. 37.

Nonnative:

FRITILLARIA. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Fritillaria. Origin: Turkey, Iran, Western Europe. Species include CROWN IMPERIAL (F. imperialis). Height: 30–36 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Orange or yellow flowers in spring. Leaves persist after flowering. Have a skunk-like odor when crushed. Not always winter hardy; GUINEA HEN FLOWER, CHEQUERED LILY (F. meleagris). Height: 12–15 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Mauve flowers checkered with squares of purple. Cultivation: Sun. Welldrained soil. Gardening Note: These “heavy feeders” “exhaust the soil.”⁵⁶

Chequered lily (Fritillaria meleagris)

Native Alternatives:

BUTTERFLY MILKWEED, p. 109; HOARY PUCCOON, p. 36; SMALL YELLOW WILD INDIGO, p. 112.

Nonnative:

FUMITORY, EARTH-SMOKE, DRUG FUMITORY. Family: Fumitory (Fumariaceae). Genus: Fumaria (F. officinalis). Origin: Europe. Height: 6–36 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Pink flowers May to August. Climbing gray-green plant. Cultivation: Sun, light shade. Medium soil. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive throughout the Midwest.

Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis)

Native Alternatives:

BLUE-EYED GRASSES, p. 44; FRINGED BLEEDING HEART, p. 17; FRINGELEAF WILD PETUNIA, p. 151; PALE CORYDALIS, p. 17; PRAIRIE SMOKE, p. 28.

Nonnative:

GERANIUM: MEADOW GERANIUM, CRANESBILL, HARDY GERANIUM. Family: Geraniaceae. Genus: Geranium (G. pratense); DOVE’S FOOT CRANESBILL (G. molle). There are other species and hybrids. Origin: Turkey, India, China. Height: 4 inches to 2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Looks “similar”⁵⁷ to our native wild geranium. Pink or purple upward facing saucer shaped flowers. Seeds end in a long beak that looks like a crane’s bill. Lobed, dissected leaves. Cultivation: Sun/partial shade. Moist well-drained soil. Invasiveness Note: Both species (and others) are naturalized or invasive throughout much of the Midwest. Nomenclature Note: Perennial geraniums are not the annuals in the genus pelargonium sold by nurseries as geraniums.

Meadow geranium (Geranium pratense)

Native Alternatives:

WILD GERANIUM, SPOTTED GERANIUM, SPOTTED CRANESBILL, HERONSBILL, WOODLAND GERANIUM. Family: Geraniaceae. Genus: Geranium (G. maculatum). Height: 1 foot in sun, 2 feet in shade. Ornamental Attributes: Showy large, long-blooming pink, lavender, or rose-purple upward-facing, saucer-shaped flowers April to July. Or, as Keeler writes, “In purple gauze dressed.”⁵⁸ Seeds end in a long beak (or cranesbill). Lobed, dissected leaves resemble Canadian anemone and also look good until winter, hiding empty spots left by ephemerals. Cultivation: Sun in moist soil. Shade in dry or medium soil; BICKNELL’S NORTHERN CRANESBILL (G. bicknellii). Note: Endangered in parts of the Midwest; CAROLINA CRANESBILL (G. carolinianum). Ornamental Attributes: The latter two have smaller flowers. Nature Note: Geranium nectar and pollen attract small butterflies, skippers, and interesting and beneficial flies. “In the meantime the petals continue their honey call to the bees and the pistil awakens. . . . The life of the flower is usually two or three days; the first day the insects get pollen, which they carry to older blossoms; the second day, seeking nectar, they bring to the receptive stigmas the pollen they have brushed from a younger flower.” A blossom “awaits the insect guests as long as it can.”⁵⁹ Geraniums host their own moth, the geranium budworm (tobacco budworm) moth (Heliothis virescens), as well as the white-marked tussock moth (Emerocampa leucostigma). The flowers eject and thus scatter their seeds. Chipmunks (p. 14) eat and also spread the seeds.

Wild geranium (Geranium maculatum)

VIRGINIA WATERLEAF, EASTERN WATERLEAF. Family: Waterleaf (Hydrophyllaceae). Genus: Hydrophyllum (H. virginianum). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: One-sided (scorpoid) clusters of white, pink, or violet flowers in April and May resemble phlox and wild geranium. Round, bump-studded light green buds. The leaves often have white splotches resembling water stains. Foliage persists to fall, hiding empty spots left by ephemerals. Cultivation: Light shade. Moist soil but tolerant of some dryness. Nature Note: The flowers attract nectar-seeking bumblebees, other long-tongued bees, and beneficial flies. Waterleaf species are pollinated by the oligolege waterleaf cuckoo bee (Nomada hydrophylli).

Virginia waterleaf (Hydrophyllum virginianum)

More Native Alternatives:

GREEK VALERIAN, p. 10; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38.

Nonnative:

GERMANDER, WALL GERMANDER. Family: Mint (Labiatae, Lamiaceae). Genus: Teucrium (T. chamaedrys). Origin: Europe. Height: 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Purple flowers. Aromatic evergreen subshrub. Cultivation: Sun. Moist soil. Nature Note: Attracts cats.

Germander (Teucrium chamaedrys)

Native Alternatives:

MOSS PHLOX, MOSS PINK. Family: Phlox (Polemoniaceae). Genus: Phlox (P. subulata). Height: 6–9 inches. Ornamental Attributes: “Magnificent mantles of fluorescent pink, white and blue radiate from hills, roadsides and gardens everywhere in this country.”⁶⁰ Needle-like foliage forms carpets. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained soil. Note: See John Bartram note in the appendix. Nature Note: The Xerces Society recommends Phlox species as nectar plants for adult butterflies. Swallowtails, sulfurs, skippers, and native moths seek the nectar. Phlox species host native moths such as the spotted straw moth (Heliothis phloxiphagus) and the olive arches moth (Lacinipolia olivacea). The pollen attracts small syrphid flies. Specialist bugs include the phlox scarlet plant bug (Lopidea davisi). This genus attracts seed-eating birds.

Moss phlox (Phlox subulata)

CANADA GERMANDER, AMERICAN GERMANDER, WOOD SAGE. Family: Mint (Labiatae, Lamiaceae). Genus: Teucrium (T. canadense). Height: 3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Spikes of lavender or pink, purple-spotted flowers late spring to late summer. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Medium moist or average garden soil. Nature Note: Native mints attract nectar-seeking butterflies, skippers, long-tongued bees, short-tongued bees, wasps, beneficial flies, beetles, plant bugs, and other interesting and beneficial insects. Also: SMOOTH HEDGENETTLE, p. 91.

Canada germander (Teucrium canadense)

SWEET CICELY. Family: Parsley/Carrot (Apiaceae, Umbelliferae). Genus: Osmorhiza (O. claytonii). Height: 2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Clusters of tiny white flowers May, June. “The delicate fern-like leaves of the Sweet Cicely in early spring carpet the forest floor in open sunny woodlands.”⁶¹ Anise- or licorice-scented roots. Cultivation: Shade. Medium moist, or average garden soil. Nature Note: Members of the Parsley family are the sole hosts plants for the Missouri/Ozark woodland swallowtail (Papilio joanae) (p. 34) and the parsnip/black swallowtail (Papilio polyxenes) (p. 34). A variety of carrot/parsley species extends the breeding season for these butterflies. The flowers attract nectar-seeking and pollen-collecting bees, flies, and other beneficial insects.

Sweet cicely (Osmorhiza claytonii)

More Native Alternatives:

GREEK VALERIAN, p. 10; NORTHERN BEDSTRAW, p. 20.

Nonnative:

GLOBEFLOWER. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Trollius; ASIAN GLOBEFLOWER (T. asiaticus); CHINESE GLOBEFLOWER (T. Chinensis); COMMON GLOBEFLOWER (T. europaeus). There are hybrids and cultivars including HYBRID GLOBEFLOWER (T. × cultorum). Origin: China, Europe. Height: 2–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Showy, solitary globular yellow flowers. Foliage is lobed and dark green. Cultivation: Sun/partial shade. Heavy moist soil.

Common globeflower (Trollius europaeus)

Native Alternative:

AMERICAN GLOBEFLOWER. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Trollius (T. laxus). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Yellow flowers April to June. Cultivation: Sun. Wet soil. Note: In the Midwest, native only to Ohio.

More Native Alternatives:

CELANDINE POPPY, p. 21; MARSH MARIGOLD, p. 22.

Nonnative:

GLORY-OF-THE-SNOW. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Chionodoxa (C. luciliae, C. forbesii). Origin: Asia Minor. Height: 4–6 inches. Ornamental Attributes: White-centered blue early spring flowers. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained soil. Aggressive, self-seeding ephemeral. Invasiveness Note: Naturalized or invasive in parts of the Midwest.

Glory-of-the-snow (Chionodoxa forbesii Baker syn. Chionodoxa luciliae)

Native Alternative:

TOADFLAX, BLUE TOADFLAX, CANADA TOADFLAX, OLD FIELD TOADFLAX. Family: Snapdragon/Figwort (Scrophulariaceae; Plantaginaceae). Genus: Nuttallanthus or Linaria (N. or L. canadensis). Height: 6–24 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Small tubular blue or violet flowers April to September. Masses create a haze of blue. Cultivation: Sun. Dry or rocky soil. Self-seeding biennial. Note: Endangered in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Hosts the buckeye butterfly (Junonia coenia). Attracts nectar-seeking adult butterflies and skippers. Bumblebees and other long-tongued bees are the primary pollinators. Notes: Do not confuse with invasive toadflax from Europe (L. vulgaris). See Thomas Nuttall and John Josselyn notes in the appendix.

Buckeye (Junonia coenia)

Toadflax (Nuttallanthus canadensis)

More Native Alternatives:

BLUE-EYED GRASSES, p. 44; BLUETS, p. 32; HEPATICAS, pp. 51–52; SHOOTING STARS, p. 66; SNOW TRILLIUM, p. 67; SPRING BEAUTY, p. 65; VIOLET WOODSORREL, p. 72; YELLOW STAR-GRASS, p. 35.

Nonnative:

GRAPE HYACINTH, ARMENIAN HYACINTH, COMMON HYACINTH. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Muscari Mill. (M. armeniacum, M. botryoides). There are many species and cultivars. Origin: Greece, Armenia. Height: 6–8 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Spikes of blue flowers April, May. Cultivation: Sun. Well-drained soil. Aggressive self-seeding ephemeral that is difficult to eradicate. Invasiveness Note: Grape hyacinth species are naturalized or invasive throughout most of the Midwest.

Grape hyacinth (Muscari armeniaca)

Native Alternatives:

BLUE-EYED GRASSES, p. 44; BLUETS, p. 32; SHOOTING STARS, p. 66; SPRING BEAUTY, p. 65; VIOLETS, p. 29; VIRGINIA BLUEBELLS, p. 18.

Nonnative:

HEPATICA, LIVERLEAF, NOBLE LIVERWORT, ANEMONE HEPATICA. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Hepatica (H. transsilvanica). Origin: Europe, Asia. Height: 4–6 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Pink, white, or blue early spring flowers. Cultivation: Damp shade. Name Note: A perceived resemblance between the leaves and the human liver.

Hepatica (Hepatica transsilvanica)

Native Alternatives:

SHARP-LEAVED HEPATICA, SHARPLOBE HEPATICA. Family: Buttercup (Ranunculaceae). Genus: Hepatica (H. nobilis var. acuta); ROUNDLOBE HEPATICA (H. nobilis var. obtusa, H. americana). Height: 4–6 inches. Ornamental Attributes: There is no woodland wildflower “more beautiful than Sharp-lobed Hepatica.”⁶² Delicate early spring lavender, pink, blue, or white flowers March through May. The three-lobed evergreen leaves remain over the winter and the appearance of new leaves in spring signals the disappearance of the flowers. Cultivation: Light/full shade. Dry or moist well-drained soil. Soft hairs protect the blossom from too rapid temperature changes. Snow and leaf litter provide winter protection. Note: See Frederick Pursh note in the appendix. Nature Note: Small bees collect pollen and beneficial flies feed on the pollen. Chipmunks (p. 14) reportedly eat the seed achenes.

Sharp-leaved hepatica (Hepatica nobilis)

Nonnative:

HYACINTH. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Hyacinthus (H. orientalis). There are hybrids. Origin: Asia. Height: 1 foot. Ornamental Attributes: Spikes of white, pink, purple, yellow, or orange early to mid-spring flowers. These ephemerals have been described as, “obese, fat-stalked, overstuffed, over-scented Levantines.”⁶³ Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Well-drained soil. Nature Note: Squirrels, chipmunks, and skunks seeking insects and worms and attracted to organic fertilizers dig up the bulbs. Gardeners combat this with homemade and commercial repellents, protective barriers, plastic owls, and other ingenuous deterrents.

Hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis)

Native Alternatives:

WILD HYACINTH, EASTERN CAMAS, ATLANTIC CAMAS. Family: Lily (Liliaceae). Genus: Camassia (C. scilloides); PRAIRIE, SOUTHERN WILD HYACINTH (C. angusta). Height: 1–2 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Fragrant spikes of violet, blue, or white six-pointed starry flowers May, June. Foliage dies expeditiously, unlike that of daffodils, tulips, and daylilies. Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Well-drained soil. Note: Native hyacinths are threatened or endangered in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Attracts butterflies such as the silvery checkerspot (Chlosyne nycteis), red admiral (Vanessa atalanta), and American lady (Vanessa virginiensis) (p. 65). Attracts skippers, nectar- and pollen-collecting long-tongued and short-tongued bees, and beautiful and beneficial wasps and beetles.

Silvery checkerspot (Chlosyne nycteis)

Red admiral (Vanessa atalanta)

Wild hyacinth (Camassia scilloides)

VIRGINIA SPIDERWORT. Family: Spiderwort (Commelinaceae). Genus: Tradescantia (T. virginiana). Height: 2–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Spectacular long-blooming blue or purple threepetaled flowers May to July bridge the gap between spring and summer. Each day a new flower replaces yesterday’s one-day bloom. One nineteenth-century observer described this plant as, “The splendid blue spiderwort, that ornament of our gardens.”⁶⁴ “Because of the beauty of the flowers of this species, it is a favorite in gardens.”⁶⁵ Cultivation: Sun in moist soil. Shade in dry soil. Spiderworts typically go dormant in summer, so cut back unkempt foliage. Name Note: Honors John Tradescant, royal gardener of King Charles I, who brought the plant to England from America.

Virginia spiderwort (Tradescantia virginiana)

More Native Spiderworts:

OHIO SPIDERWORT, BLUEJACKET (T. ohiensis). Height: 2–4 feet. Cultivation: Sun, part sun. Dry, medium, or moist soil. June to August; LONG BRACT SPIDERWORT (T. bracteata). Height: 1–2 feet. Spreads gradually; ZIG-ZAG SPIDERWORT (T. subaspera). Height: 3 feet. Flowers until August. Nature Note: Spiderworts attract bees and other beneficial insects.

More Native Alternatives:

INDIGO, pp. 111–12; WILD BLUE PHLOX, p. 38; WILD LUPINE, p. 37.

Nonnative:

IRIS. Family: Iris (Iridaceae). Genus: Iris. Origin: Europe, Asia. Hybrid mixtures of European, Eastern Mediterranean, and Asiatic varieties are too numerous to mention. Height: 8 inches to 3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Showy flowers consisting of three upright petals (standards) and three downward-facing outer petals (falls). Sword-shaped leaves. Cultivation: Most bearded iris hybrids and cultivars (dwarf, intermediate, and tall) require sun, well-drained soil, and lifting, spraying, fertilizing and watering to prevent disease. European yellow flag or pale yellow iris (I. pseudacorus) and Siberian iris (I. sibirica) prefer wet or moist soil. Invasiveness Note: German iris (I. germanica), lemonyellow iris (I. flavescens Delile), and European yellow flag iris (I. pseudacorus) are naturalized or invasive in the Midwest.

Iris (Iris)

Native Alternatives:

VIRGINIA IRIS, BLUE FLAG, SOUTHERN BLUE FLAG IRIS. Family: Iris (Iridaceae). Genus: Iris (I. virginica, I. shrevei). Height: 2–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Dramatic purple yellow-crested flowers May to July. Sword-shaped longlasting leaves. Looks like a beardless German iris cultivar (Iris × germanica). “A colorful beauty” that “grows very well in average garden soil and, in favorable habitat, spreads rapidly from large rhizomes.”⁶⁶ Cultivation: Sun. Moist, medium, or wet soil. Creates easily divided clumps; CRESTED IRIS (I. cristata). Height: 6–9 inches. Ornamental Attributes: Pale blue flowers with a yellow crest. Crested iris is “one of the finest dwarf irises for the garden.”⁶⁷ Cultivation: Light/part shade. Rich soil. Also: WHITE CRESTED IRIS (I. cristata alba). White flowers; HARLEQUIN BLUE FLAG, LARGER BLUE FLAG, NORTHERN BLUE FLAG (I. versicolor). Height: 2–3 feet. Ornamental Attributes: Blue to purple. “Strongly resembles its domesticated relatives which, like it, derive their name from the goddess of the rainbow.”⁶⁸ Cultivation: Sun/light shade. Easily grown in most gardens. Slowly forms easily divided clumps; COPPER IRIS, RED IRIS, LOUISIANA IRIS (I. fulva). Ornamental Attributes: “A spectacular orange-red species, the only red iris in our area.”⁶⁹ Also produces large wide yellow flowers. Cultivation: Sun. Moist or wet soil. Also: ZIGZAG or SHORTSTEMMED IRIS (I. brevicaulis); DWARF LAKE IRIS (I. lacustris). Pink flowers. Note: Some native irises are threatened or endangered in parts of the Midwest. Nature Note: Native irises attract butterflies, skippers, short-tongued bees, and other beneficial insects. Nectar-seeking bumblebees are the most important pollinators. The lines of dark purple on the sepals (petals) lead the bees to the nectar.

Virginia iris (Iris virginica)

More Native Alternatives:

INDIGO, pp. 111–12; SPIDERWORTS, p. 53; WILD LUPINE, p. 37.

Native Alternatives for Moisture-Loving Irises: