Читать книгу The Canadian Honours System - Christopher McCreery - Страница 11

IMPERIAL HONOURS IN CANADA FROM CONFEDERATION TO THE CENTENNIAL

To an outside observer it might be strange to include what some would consider a foreign honours system in a book that examines Canadian honours. This would be true if not for the fact that until recently most orders, decorations, and medals awarded to Canadians were borrowed from the British. While Canadians administered these honours and Canadian governments had control over who received them, they were for the most part common throughout the British Empire/Commonwealth. Indeed, while Canada ceased using British honours in 1967 with the creation of the Order of Canada, some Commonwealth countries such as Australia and New Zealand have only followed the Canadian lead within the past forty years. There remain a number of the Queen’s smaller realms such as Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Belize, Tuvalu, Grenada, and St. Lucia that continue to use imperial honours or what they now call “the Queen’s honours.” In some cases these are used alone or in tandem with local national honours.

The evolution of honours systems in the Commonwealth is a fascinating subject, one that relates closely to the development of Canada’s modern honours system. Countries such as Australia, Fiji, and the Solomon Islands have adopted national orders in part based on the Order of Canada. The Canadian experience with developing a national honours system has been closely followed by many countries keen on creating an indigenous honours system while continuing to respect that which came before.

Given the large number of Canadians who received imperial honours during the past century, many of whom are still alive, it would be recklessly revisionist to pretend that such honours were foreign.

The term imperial honours is used throughout this book, not out of some antediluvian attachment to the words but because the British honours system in Canada and the Commonwealth was until relatively recently an imperial honours system, one tacitly administered by the various government departments responsible for honours in the United Kingdom, but one in which there was a high degree of local control over the type of awards and who was honoured. It is misleading to consider them to be only “British” when they were, in fact, a system shared, shaped, and used by the whole of the Commonwealth at one time or another.

The administration of each order, decoration, and medal covered in this section is discussed in the following six chapters. Canadian officials had a significant amount of control over who would be nominated for or receive a specific award. From an accountant’s point of view it was an ideal situation, since the British defrayed most of the costs for insignia and certificates while Canadian officials merely had to cover the postage charge for the shipping of insignia.

For senior honours, administration was left to the prime minister, who was allotted a certain number of knighthoods for which he could recommend eminent Canadians. While the Sovereign was — and remains — the “fountain of all honours,” the prime minister once had a great degree of personal control over who received honours, whereas today he or she has no formal influence over who is recognized by the Crown in Canada. Gallantry awards were non-political and thus there was no interference by political officials, though they were occasionally involved in the broader process of sitting on committees and sending along recommendations for bravery awards to the Department of the Secretary of State, which was, until 1972, charged with the administration of honours in Canada.

As we will see, aside from a few very high-profile cases, the Canadian government once had an immense degree of control over the flow of honours. Nevertheless, the perception remained that imperial honours were tightly controlled by the British government. This may have had some truth to it in connection to peerages and certain knighthoods conferred upon Canadians, but in terms of those honours Canadians became most familiar with, such as the Order of the British Empire, war service medals, long service medals, and the Imperial Service Medal, Canada had near-complete autonomy.

Canada continues to differentiate between Commonwealth and foreign honours. Because members of the Commonwealth recognize the Queen as head of the Commonwealth, honours emanating from a Commonwealth country are given precedence over those from non-Commonwealth countries. This is closely connected with the legal reality that Commonwealth countries are not considered to be foreign, because of the fact that we share a common link through our history and the Sovereign.

The section on imperial honours does not cover medals such as the Naval General Service Medal, 1915–62, and the Military General Service Medal, 1918–62, despite the fact that a small number of Canadians received these while on exchange with the British Armed Forces. Similarly, the Falkland Islands War Medal, the Campaign Service Medal, and most recently the British Operational Service Medal (for Sierra Leone) have been awarded to Canadians; however, their numbers remain so low that inclusion is not warranted here. Today the last three medals are considered “Commonwealth” and not Canadian.

The Imperial Honours System in Canada

In Canada the Crown has always been the “fountain of all honours.” As such all officially recognized national and provincial honours must be created by the Sovereign and either awarded in the name of the Queen or sanctioned by the Crown. The bestowal of honours in Canada was articulated through the honours list, originally published in the London Gazette and later the Canada Gazette. During peacetime, the list was published twice yearly, once on the Sovereign’s birthday and once around Christmas or New Year’s Day. For Canadian civilians these lists were compiled by the governor general and prime minister — though the level of their co-operation varied — and then submitted to the Sovereign for approval. For members of the Canadian military, honours lists were drawn up by senior military officers and the minister of national defence, then approved or augmented by the governor general. Until 1918 the British government had the power to nominate Canadians for honours, though this prerogative effectively came to an end with the Nickle Resolution.

Prior to Confederation the British government did not feel obligated to consult the colonial governments of British North America before conferring an honour upon a resident of what would later become the Dominion of Canada. The system was quite simple: the governor or governor general would suggest to the colonial secretary that a particular person be recognized; if the colonial secretary approved the nomination, it would be put forward for the approval of the British prime minister and ultimately the Sovereign. Recommendations did not have to originate with the governor or governor general; in theory they could originate from any member of the general public, though in practice it was unlikely that the colonial secretary would act upon the recommendation of, say, a Mr. Shanks of Bytown, Canada West. Similarly, the colonial secretary could suggest that a particular person in a colony be recognized, and of course the governor of the colony in question, as the local authority, would normally be consulted.

Residents of Canada were eligible for most British honours, save those that did not apply to Canada, such as the Order of the Star of India or the Order of the Indian Empire. In the pre-Confederation period relatively few honours were bestowed upon Canadians. Those awarded were usually knighthoods conferred on judges and senior politicians. There were no junior civil service honours or long service medals for the local constable.

An Emerging Policy, 1867–1917

Cartoon of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, PC, GCMG, shortly after his dubbing in 1897.

After Confederation a convention emerged whereby the prime minister of Canada submitted his honours lists to the governor general, who vetted them and submitted them to the colonial secretary and then onto the Sovereign. The governor general — who was then a British official — also nominated Canadians for honours, usually without the knowledge of the Canadian prime minister. Awards for members of the military were submitted by the general officer in command of the Canadian Militia to the governor general for transmission to London, though there were some instances when the prime minister nominated senior Canadian officers for honours.

This system of informal consultation functioned fairly well until 1901 when controversy arose over the knighting of Thomas Shaughnessy, president of Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). Governor General Lord Minto suggested to Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier that Shaughnessy be knighted on account of his services during the 1901 Royal Tour of the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York (the future King George V and Queen Mary). Laurier opposed the idea on the grounds that Shaughnessy was unpopular with Canadians and certainly no friend of the prime minister. Minto, however, disregarded Laurier’s advice and advanced the nomination.

Laurier was furious when Shaughnessy was knighted, and it did not help that he learned of the appointment from a newspaper and not the governor general. By 1902, Laurier had drafted an official policy on honours in Canada. It set out that all honours, save the Royal Victorian Order, had to be approved by the prime minister before any list could be sent from the governor general to the King. The governor general and the British government took their time in replying to Laurier’s policy, and while they agreed that the prime minister should be involved in reviewing the honours lists and submitting names, they maintained that the governor general would retain the right to nominate Canadians.

Discontent and Discord: The Nickle Debates, 1917–19

The First World War brought much social and constitutional change to Canada, which included the nation’s policy toward honours. Prior to the war there had been only muted opposition to titular honours such as peerages and knighthoods. Honours were viewed as necessary, even if they were used as tools of patronage from time to time. This prevailing attitude changed during the Great War as a result of several high-profile controversies. In 1914 a private member’s bill was introduced in the House of Commons that sought to abolish peerages and knighthoods in Canada, but not other honours. This proposal was poorly received and promptly defeated. By 1917, however, the mood had changed.

In particular, two very public scandals over honours induced Parliament to examine the issue. The first involved the 1915 appointment of the Canadian minister of militia and defence, Sam Hughes, as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath. Hughes had been pilloried in the press because of his overall administration of the department of militia and defence and the Canadian Expeditionary Force. His bombastic approach, cronyism, and procurement of the Ross Rifle were widely reported. The more serious outrage occurred in 1917 when Sir Hugh Graham, owner of the Montreal Star and a staunch imperialist, was elevated to the peerage as Lord Atholstan — against the advice of the Canadian prime minister and governor general. Graham’s peerage was so controversial in part because of his highly unpopular right-wing views and because of an increasing suspicion among Canadians of peerages and knighthoods. Although an unpopular figure, Graham had built up a major newspaper and founded a number of other publications.

This was the only time in Canadian history that the British government ignored advice from both a governor general and a prime minister. The disregard of Ottawa’s wishes was related to the fact that British Prime Minister David Lloyd George was selling peerages and knighthoods to raise funds for his party. While the use of honours to reward political contributions was hardly new, under Lloyd George such transactions had become particularly blatant, as is noted below.

In addition to these events, there was an underlying naïveté about honours in Canada. Peerages and knighthoods were thought to be the same thing — both hereditary — and there was similar confusion regarding the imperial orders of chivalry. For instance, when the creation of the Order of the British Empire was announced in 1917, Canadian newspapers announced that three hundred Canadians were going to be knighted with the new order. This was certainly not the case.

Sir Robert Borden, PC, GCMG, KC.

In March 1917, following Graham’s elevation to the peerage as Lord Atholstan, Sir Robert Borden drafted a new government policy setting out that all honours must be approved by the Canadian prime minister and that no further hereditary honours (peerages or baronetcies) were to be conferred on Canadians. Only a week after this policy was drafted, William Folger Nickle, the Conservative-Unionist Member of Parliament (MP) for Kingston, introduced a resolution in the House of Commons requesting that the King cease awarding peerages to Canadians. Nickle had no trouble with knighthoods or other honours, only those that had a hereditary quality. Nickle’s resolution was, in fact, very similar to Borden’s new policy. After a lengthy debate, the House of Commons adopted a resolution placing power over recommendations for all honours in the hands of the Canadian prime minister, while at the same time asking the King to cease awarding hereditary titles to Canadians. This is what came to be known as the Nickle Resolution, even though Nickle himself voted against the version eventually adopted.

Although the Nickle Resolution was adopted, the debate was far from over. While military honours continued to be conferred, Borden did not send forward any further recommendations for honours. He thought the issue was still too contentious to test the new protocol.

Throughout late 1918 and most of 1919, the British press was littered with reports about people purchasing honours. Although this was a problem confined to Britain, many people in Canada assumed that the same practice was followed on this side of the Atlantic as well. Fearing that an avalanche of knighthoods was to accompany the newly created Order of the British Empire, Nickle introduced another motion in April 1919. This one called for the King to “hereafter be graciously pleased to refrain from conferring any titles upon your subjects domiciled or living in Canada.”

William Folger Nickle, KC, MP.

Nickle was now pursuing a prohibition on all titular honours, a departure from his original opposition to only hereditary honours. Following another lengthy debate that in many ways mirrored the one in 1918, the House of Commons voted to create a Special Committee on Honours and Titles, which held several meetings and eventually submitted a report to Parliament that called for the King to cease conferring all honours and titular distinctions, save military ranks and vocational and professional titles, upon residents of Canada. It also recommended that action be taken to extinguish the heritable quality of peerages and baronetcies held by Canadians, something that would be impossible to do. The committee approved of the continuance of naval and military decorations for valour and gallantry. The final part of the report affirmed the committee’s desire to see that no resident of Canada be permitted to accept a title of honour or titular distinction from a foreign (non-British) government. The Commons passed a motion of concurrence with the report and it was adopted.

There has, invariably, been confusion about the Nickle Resolution and the Report of the Special Committee on Honours and Titles. Neither was a statute, and neither had any standing as anything more than a recommendation or guideline, as Prime Minister R.B. Bennett demonstrated in 1933. The Nickle Resolution served as a policy document on how a prime minister could submit honours lists, and while it requested that no further hereditary honours be bestowed, it did not prevent Canadians from accepting other honours, whether a knighthood or Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).

Prohibition, 1919–1932

The prohibition on Canadians accepting imperial honours commenced in 1918 and lasted until 1933. Neither Prime Minister Arthur Meighen nor his successor William Lyon Mackenzie King submitted honours lists, though it was well within their power to do so. Both leaders hesitated on account of the issue’s contentiousness. The prohibition was not complete, however, as Canadians living in other parts of the British Empire were still eligible to be awarded honours. In 1925 Canadian-born Emma Albani, the world-renowned soprano and the first Canadian to attain international stardom as a result of artistic abilities, was honoured with a damehood. Albani was made a Dame of the Order of the British Empire in 1925, the first Canadian woman to be so honoured, but since she resided in the United Kingdom, the Canadian government did not become involved in protesting her appointment.

Another prominent example was that of Dr. Sir George Washington Badgerow, a famous ear, nose, and throat doctor. Badgerow was born and trained in Canada, though he made his home in Britain. In 1926 the British government requested permission from the Canadian government to allow Badgerow to be knighted. Two years later the Canadian government responded that the award could go forward because Badgerow, though born in Canada, was a resident of Britain and was being rewarded for services he performed in Britain. Thus the prohibition was incidental, and Bennett would prove that there was, in fact, no legislative prohibition at all, but rather a series of prime ministers who had no interest in honours lists.

Bennett’s Honours Lists, 1932–1935

Prime Minister R.B. Bennett broke the moratorium on honours that had existed in Canada between 1919 and 1933. In fact, Bennett adhered perfectly to the Nickle Resolution and had eighteen Canadians awarded knighthoods and 189 appointed to the various non-titular levels of the imperial orders of chivalry. Bennett solicited nominations from the various lieutenant governors and other officials and then personally selected each candidate.

Richard Bedford Bennett, PC, ED, KC.

Unlike previous lists, Bennett’s were largely non-partisan and well distributed among the provinces and between both sexes — quite a novelty for the period.

Among others, Bennett’s lists recognized Sir Frederick Banting, the co-discoverer of insulin; Sir Ernest Macmillan, the noted composer and conductor; Sir Thomas Chapais, the esteemed historian; and Sir Arthur Doughty, the dominion archivist. At the non-titular level, Lucy Maud Montgomery was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) and Lester Pearson was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). For the first time women represented nearly half of those being recognized with honours. Public reaction to these awards was ambivalent.

Bennett himself was offered a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (GCMG), though he declined it and offered it to William Lyon Mackenzie King, who also declined it. Bennett was the last Canadian prime minister to make use of all aspects of the imperial honours system, with the final knighthood made on the recommendation of a Canadian ministry being a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (KCMG), going to one of Canada’s first diplomats, the Honourable Herbert Meredith Marler, Canada’s minister plenipotentiary to Japan.

The Second World War

When Mackenzie King was returned as prime minister in 1935, the brief revival of imperial honours came to an abrupt end. Thus, Canada entered the Second World War with no policy on honours, other than to allow for the bestowal of gallantry and valour decorations. Even this policy was unclear as to who would approve the awards, from where nominations would emanate, and how many were to be allotted for Canadian service personnel. To deal with these problems a special interdepartmental committee, which would later become the Awards Coordination Committee (ACC), was founded in early 1940. This committee drafted formal honours policies, the first of which set out that Canadians could receive gallantry decorations “in operations against the enemy.”[1] No provisions were made for appointing Canadians to the various imperial orders of chivalry.

William Lyon Mackenzie King, PC, OM, CMG.

Throughout the Second World War, numerous proposals were devised to create a Canadian order, but none came to fruition, and thus Canada continued to work within the broader imperial honours system. In 1942, Parliament again tackled the issue of honours and awards. In July of that year, the Awards Coordination Committee met and ultimately decided that, in addition to being allowed to receive gallantry and valour decorations, Canadians should be eligible for the non-titular levels of the imperial orders of chivalry (those not conferring knighthood). It also expressed the opinion that the Canadian government should establish a Canadian order of merit. Essentially, the committee adhered to the Nickle Resolution — which allowed for the award of honours only on the advice of the Canadian government — while simultaneously discarding the proposals of the 1919 Special Committee on Honours and Titles, which sought to cease the naming of Canadians to all imperial orders of chivalry.

It was not until 1967 with the founding of the Order of Canada that the Canadian government acted upon the 1942 proposal to create a Canadian honour. In terms of the other proposals, Canadian service personnel and civilians were made eligible for the non-titular levels of the Order of the Bath, the Order of St. Michael and St. George, the Order of the British Empire, and the Imperial Service Order. This came to an end with the conclusion of the war, and Dominion Day 1946 saw the last civil honours list until the establishment of the Order of Canada.

The Korean War

With the beginning of the Korean War, Cabinet was once again faced with making decisions about honours in Canada. It elected merely to institute a policy similar to that used during the Second World War, which allowed for members of the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force to accept imperial gallantry decorations and the non-titular levels of the imperial orders of chivalry. However, in contrast to the Second World War, civilians who made an important contribution to the Korean War effort were not permitted to receive any honours.

The 1956 Policy: An Incomplete Solution, 1956–1967

The end of the Korean War saw the flow of imperial honours, aside from long service awards, cease once again. In 1956, however, Cabinet passed a directive that instated a more liberal policy toward honours and awards. Cabinet Directive 30 allowed Canadian civilians to receive the George Cross, George Medal, and Queen’s Commendation for Brave Conduct for “acts of bravery performed at the risk of death or serious injury.” Thus, for the most part, the Canadian honours system consisted of bravery decorations. Allowances were also made to permit appointments for gallantry to the various levels of the Order of the British Empire, and a handful of appointments to the order were made to both civilians and members of the Canadian Armed Forces for bravery. Members of the military were still eligible for the various imperial gallantry decorations, though there were no such allowances for other recognition (see chapter 5). The 1956 policy also allowed for Canadians to accept foreign honours under certain circumstances. This was the first time since the Second World War that Canadian civilians were permitted to accept foreign honours.

The final Canadian to be awarded an imperial honour on the advice of the Canadian government came in 1968 when Captain (Nursing Sister) Josephine A. Cashin of the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) with gallantry emblem. This was in recognition of her bravery in assisting with the rescue effort following the crash of a Czechoslovakian State Airline plane near Gander International Airport in September 1967.

Establishing the Canadian Honours System, 1967

Letters patent constituting the Order of Military Merit, 1972.

The modern Canadian honours system finds its basis, initially, in the Order of Canada, established by letters patent signed by Queen Elizabeth II on March 17, 1967. At first the order consisted of three separate parts: Companion of the Order of Canada, the Medal of Courage of the Order of Canada, and the Medal of Service of the Order of Canada. These three awards served as the cornerstone upon which the post-1967 Canadian honours system has developed. The development of the Order of Canada has embodied much more than the creation of a single institution; it is rather a project that expanded to include the various Canadian Decorations for Bravery, the Order of Military Merit, and an entire family of honours. To this has been added the provincial orders and a select number of provincial medals.

Honours in the Dominion of Newfoundland

Newfoundland, itself a periodic autonomous dominion prior to joining Canada in 1949, had a rather different honours experience. Indeed, imperial honours were bestowed upon Newfoundlanders right up until the eve of Confederation. There was never a prohibition on residents of this dominion from accepting any honours, and liberal use was made of the system, especially between 1930 and 1949. The governor and premier played a direct role in drawing up nomination lists that were submitted to the Colonial and later the Dominions Office.

During the Commission of Government period (1934–1949), when there was no premier, the roles of the governor and chairman of the commission were paramount in the process. As with the appointments made to Canadians during the Bennett premiership and throughout the Second World War, the Dominions Office simply provided each dominion with a maximum allotment of honours, and they did not become involved in the actual nomination process. Much to the annoyance of the Canadian government, the flow of knighthoods to Newfoundlanders continued right up to the moment of Confederation.

On a per capita basis, Newfoundland was one of the most honoured parts of the British Empire, its residents having received one peerage, one Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (GCMG), thirteen Knight Commanders of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (KCMGs), fourteen Companions of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (CMGs), nine Knight Commanders of the Order of the British Empire (KBEs), one Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE), three military Commanders of the Order of the British Empire (CBEs), twenty-six civil CBEs, nine military Officers of the Order of the British Empire (OBEs), forty-eight civil OBEs, ninety-eight Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBEs), and one Imperial Service Order (ISO). One Newfoundlander serving in the Royal Navy was a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) and later a Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB), while his brother was a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) — all in the military division.[2]

The Creation of Canadian Honours Today

Proposals to create new honours or medals generally come from the Chancellery of Honours or the Department of National Defence, though they occasionally emanate from individuals, organizations, members of the public, or commissioned reports.

The Chancellery researches to ensure that the proposed honour or medal is needed and that it conforms to Canadian honours policy. Once it deems that the honour is needed, a proposal is presented to the Honours Policy Committee, a government body chaired by the clerk of the Privy Council and made up of senior public servants from various federal departments. If the Honours Policy Committee agrees that the honour is needed, the Chancellery is then directed to propose regulations and a draft order-in-council. Design proposals are also drawn up by the Chancellery, usually in collaboration with the Canadian Heraldic Authority.

The Honours Policy Committee then reviews the proposal again and, if approved, it is passed on to the prime minister for consideration. If the prime minister approves the new award, the Queen’s informal agreement is sought. From this point an order-in-council is processed through the Privy Council Office. On the advice of the prime minister of Canada, through the governor general’s office, the letters patent and design paintings are sent to Buckingham Palace for approval by Her Majesty the Queen. It is only when the Queen signs the letters patent that the honour is considered to be officially created.

Once the paintings and letters patent are signed by the Queen, a press release is sent out by the governor general and the regulations for the new award are published in the Canada Gazette. Amendments to the criteria for Canadian orders, decorations, and medals do not have to be approved by the Queen but can be made by the governor general.