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IMPERIAL CAMPAIGN MEDALS

Although medals commemorating service in battle are known to date back to the time of Elizabeth I and the defeat of the Spanish Armada, tthese awards were not intended for wear. The first broadly distributed war medal intended for wear by both officers and men was the Waterloo Medal issued in 1815, which set the pattern for the various service medals awarded throughout the Commonwealth to this day. The British Naval General Service Medal and Military General Service Medal, both established in 1847, served as models for the multi-engagement war and operational service medals that came after. A few earlier issues, such as the Sutlej Medal, are of a similar design, but the former two medals were the most widely awarded.

The Naval and Military General Service Medals, though not awarded solely for service in North America, were the first modern-style medals awarded to Canadians or to others for service in what would become Canada. The first British medal awarded for service solely in Canada was the North West Canada Medal, instituted in 1885 for those who had served in quelling the North-West Rebellion. The obverse of the medal displayed a youthful Queen Victoria, while the reverse featured a wreath of maple leaves and the inscription NORTH WEST CANADA 1885. It was an austere design, but it set a precedent in Canada as the first true Canadian military service medal. It was largely a Canadian expedition, one in which few British officials were involved.[1]

The striking of the medal was initiated by Lord Lansdowne, Canada’s governor general. On May 19, 1885, Lansdowne suggested to the British government that a medal recognizing service in the rebellion should be struck, since it “would have an excellent effect upon the spirit of the Canadian forces.”

Just over a month later, on June 22, 1885, the British government agreed that such a medal could be struck on the condition that the cost was borne by the Canadian government.[2] Lansdowne was elated with this news, though much less satisfied that the Canadian government was to be saddled with the bill. He viewed the cost as incidental, given the “results which would follow from the free gift of the medal.” It was ultimately agreed that the imperial government would pay for the honour.

The governor general even took an interest in the design: “The obverse will, I assume, represent the Queen’s head, and the reverse might be engraved with a design distinctive of the Dominion.”[3] Lansdowne later suggested that the reverse of the medal “should be ornamented with a wreath of Maple leaves, in the centre of which the words ‘The North West 1885’ might be impressed.”[4] While the governor general developed the concept, it was Allan Wyon of the Royal Mint who completed the formal design.

The Canadian government, never having been involved with creating a military medal, briefly considered having the medal struck in bronze, though Lansdowne insisted that silver be used. They were unaware that bronze medals were usually reserved for non-European troops serving in India.

An order-in-council was issued on February 16, 1887, after Queen Victoria authorized the design and striking of the medal. With this Canada’s first military medal was born. The design and purpose of such service medals has remained largely the same since the striking of the North West Canada Medal with minor variations. Even the eighteen-month period that it took to get the medal approved is comparable to the time it takes to have a modern Canadian award developed from a rough concept to a completed design.

The next medal with a connection to Canada was the aptly named Canada General Service Medal, sanctioned in 1899 by Queen Victoria for those who had served in the 1866 and 1870 Fenian Raids as well as in the 1870 Red River Rebellion, Riel’s first uprising. The obverse depicted Queen Victoria, while the reverse contained a spreading wreath of maple leaves and the Canadian Red Ensign. Most significantly, the ribbon comprised three equal stripes: red, white, and red, possibly taken from the flag used by the Royal Military College of Canada, founded in 1876.

The Canada General Service medal inaugurated another tradition, the creation of medals many decades after the actual operation or event, there having been a thirty-three year gap between the first Fenian Raid and the issue of the medal.

Chapter 23 provides a detailed account of Canada’s post-1967 war and service medals, while this chapter focuses on those awarded prior to the creation of the modern Canadian honours system. Each of the following entries includes a short description of the conflict in question: these are by no means complete accounts of each war, battle, or engagement; however, they are intended to provide some background to the events recognized with each medal and or clasp.

The Military General Service Medal, 1793–1814

Military General Service Medal obverse.

Origins: The Military General Service Medal was instituted on June 1, 1847, to recognize officers and men who served in a diverse array of wars and engagements that took place between 1793 and 1850. Of the twenty-nine clasps awarded with this medal, twenty-one were awarded for service in the Peninsular War (1808–14) and three were awarded for service in the War of 1812, specifically for engagements at Fort Detroit, Chateauguay, and Crysler’s Farm. It is the three War of 1812 clasps and battles that make this medal of great interest to Canadians. An attempt was made to have clasps created for other key battles, namely, Queenston Heights, Lundy’s Lane, Ogdensburg, Lacolle, and Plattsburg. However, the War Office refused.

Hostilities began on June 18, 1812, when the United States declared war on Britain — and thus Britain’s North American colonies were drawn into the fray. Tensions between Britain and the United States had grown as a result of events surrounding the Napoleonic Wars, one of the factors being Napoleon’s closing of all European ports to British trade. In response to this action, the British began requiring that all neutral ships sailing to Europe have a licence, which had a profound effect on American trade interests, since the United States had maintained neutrality during the conflict.

The British routinely stopped American vessels on the high seas and searched for contraband and deserters from the Royal Navy who had joined U.S. ships. While many of the deserters had since become American citizens, this meant little to the British, who would arrest them and re-impress them into the Royal Navy. While the British government rescinded the orders-in-council permitting this sort of action a few days before the American declaration of war, the slowness of communication meant the news did not reach Washington until after the declaration had been made. The war was fought in five theatres: Atlantic, Western, Niagara, St. Lawrence, and Southern.

The Atlantic operations transpired throughout the entire war period. The Royal Navy, based out of Halifax and the West Indies, maintained a blockade of American ports in an effort to restrict the flow of trade and goods. The most significant naval engagement of the war took place in September 1813 between the HMS Shannon and the USS Chesapeake, which resulted in a humiliating defeat for the Americans outside Boston’s harbour. In addition to this, ships primarily from Nova Scotia were provided with letters of marque that allowed them to legally capture and requisition enemy ships and goods. The Royal Navy also launched attacks on American towns along the Eastern Seaboard.

Military General Service Medal with multiple bars obverse.

Western operations took place in the Great Lakes region, largely over all-important transportation routes. Notable among these operations was the capture of Fort Detroit by British and Canadian troops aided by First Nations warriors. Other incursions included attacks on Fort Dearborn (Chicago), the capture of the post at Michilimackinac, and the final battle at Moraviantown in October 1813.

The Niagara operation involved the many forts and strongholds on the Canadian and American sides of the Niagara River. Almost a dozen battles were fought from Niagara to what is Toronto today. The burning of York (Toronto), the Battle of Queenstown Heights, and the Battle of Beaver Dams were key engagements. The St. Lawrence operation included an attempt by American troops to capture Montreal in an effort to prevent British reinforcements from reaching the inter-ior of Upper Canada and Niagara. The Great Lakes and Lake Champlain witnessed fierce fighting on the water between British/Canadian and American forces. The conflict also included Southern operations such as the Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans.

The Treaty of Ghent ending the war was signed by British and American representatives on December 24, 1814, though it would be several months until the hostilities came to an end on February 17, 1815.

Criteria: Participation in any number of battles or campaigns. This medal could be awarded to a diverse array of combatants, not only those serving in the British Army, Canadian Militia, or Royal Newfoundland Fencibles, but also First Nations warriors. Applications for this medal could only be made by survivors.

Military General Service Medal reverse.

Insignia: A circular silver medal 36 mm in diameter, depicting on the obverse an effigy of Queen Victoria circumscribed by the legend VICTORIA REGINA with the date 1848 at the base. The reverse depicts Queen Victoria standing atop a dais and presenting a kneeling Duke of Wellington with a laurel wreath. Beside the dais is an allegorical British lion. The entire scene is circumscribed by the text TO THE BRITISH ARMY with the dates 1793–1814 in the exergue. The medal was always awarded with at least one bar and was designed by William Wyon.

Suspender: A swivelling claw suspender with a straight bar to which clasps attach.

Ribbon: Crimson in colour, 31 mm wide, edged with 3 mm of dark blue on each side.

Clasps: Twenty-nine battle/campaign clasps were issued, and it was possible for a soldier or officer to receive multiple clasps, the maximum awarded being fifteen. The Canadian-related clasps awarded for the War of 1812 were:

• FORT DETROIT: Sir Isaac Brock, the Canadian Militia, and a large group of First Nations warriors captured the fort from a vastly superior American force on August 16, 1813.

• CHATEAUGUAY: Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry and those under his command who defended Montreal from the advancing U.S. force of Major-General Wade Hampton. Aside from a few members of the Royal Artillery, this battle was fought almost entirely by members of the Canadian Militia and First Nations warriors on October 26, 1813.

• CRYSLER’S FARM: The U.S. Army under General James Wilkinson planned another attack on Montreal that was to involve Major-General Hampton and his forces. However, Hampton failed to join the attack. A force led by Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph W. Morrison was ordered to attack the rear of the American force. However, Wilkinson learned of this and ordered an attack upon Morrison’s force, which had taken up a position at Crysler’s Farm where the battle took place on November 11, 1813.

Naming: Impressed Roman capitals with given name and surname for men, while officers’ medals included their abbreviated rank.

Other: A number of unofficial clasps for Stoney Creek, Fort George, and Queenstown Heights are known to exist.

Number: 908.

• 315 Fort Detroit.

• 339 Chateauguay.

• 211 Crysler’s Farm.

• 3 Fort Detroit and Chateauguay.

• 8 Fort Detroit and Crysler’s Farm.

• 3 with all 3 clasps.

• 7 Fort Detroit with other non-Canada–related clasps.

• 1 with Chateauguay and other non-Canada–related clasp bars.

• 21 with other non-Canada-related clasps.

The Naval General Service Medal, 1793–1840

Naval General Service Medal obverse.

Origins: The Naval General Service Medal was instituted in 1847 to recognize officers and men who had served in the Royal Navy and Royal Marines who had been in a diverse array of wars and engagements that took place between 1793 and 1840, notably during the French Revolutionary War and Napoleonic Wars. A total of 231 different clasps were issued with this medal, and the maximum awarded with a single medal was seven. Eleven clasps were issued in relation to War of 1812 actions.

Criteria: Participation in any number of actions. Applications for this medal could only be made by survivors. The medal was always issued with at least one clasp. Those most relevant to Canada were awarded to those who served in boat service engagements that took place on the Great Lakes during the War of 1812 on September 3 and 6 and May 6, 1814.

Suspender: A swivelling claw suspender with a straight bar to which clasps attach.

Ribbon: White in colour, 31 mm wide, edged with 3 mm of dark blue on each side.

Clasps: There are 231 different clasps for everything from major battles, minor engagements, and boat service actions. Those related to the War of 1812 are:

• 28 APRIL BOAT SERVICE 1813: HMS Dolphin, HMS Dragon, HMS Fantome, HMS Highflyer, HMS Maidstone, HMS Marlborough, HMS Mohawk, HMS Racer, and HMS Statira sailed up the Elk River from Chesapeake Bay with the objective of destroying American ships and the cannon foundry at Frenchtown. After destroying five American ships and Frenchtown on April 29, a landing party proceeded to attack the town of Havre de Grace on May 3. Clasps were given for two separate actions. Fifty-five clasps were issued.

Naval General Service Medal reverse.

Boat Service Bar for the Naval General Service Medal.

• 29 APRIL BOAT SERVICE 1813: HMS Orpheus burned the Whampoa, an American merchant vessel, in Narragansett Bay off Rhode Island. Two clasps were issued.

• PELICAN: HMS Pelican captured the USS Argus off the coast of Ireland on August 14, 1813. The Argus had been raiding British shipping in the Bristol Channel area. One hundred and eleven clasps were issued.

• SHANNON WH. CHESAPEAKE: Capture of the USS Chesapeake by the HMS Shannon off the coast of New England on June 1, 1813. Forty-eight clasps were issued.

• PHOEBE: HMS Phoebe engaged USS Essex and captured it along with the sloop Essex Junior off the coast of Chile on March 28, 1814. Thirty clasps were issued.

• CHERUB: HMS Cherub engaged USS Essex and captured it along with the sloop Essex Junior off the coast of Chile on March 28, 1814. Nine clasps were issued.

• 8 APRIL BOAT SERVICE 1814: HMS Hogue, HMS Edymion, HMS Maidstone, and HMS Boxer destroyed American vessels in the Connecticut River. Twenty-four clasps were issued.

• THE POTOMAC 17 AUGUST 1814: HMS Aetna, HMS Devastation, HMS Euryalus, HMS Leviathan, HMS Meteor, HMS Sea Horse, HMS Erebus, HMS Fairy, HMS Anna Maria, HMS Alceste, and HMS Regulus for the destruction of American vessels 140 kilometres up the Potomac River and the bombardment and capture of Fort Washington and Alexandria, Virginia, from August 17 to September 6, 1814. One hundred and eleven clasps were issued.

• 3 & 6 SEPT. BOAT SERVICE 1814: HMS Nancy aided by the Royal Newfoundland Regiment destroyed the American schooners USS Tigress and USS Scorpion on Lake Huron. One bar was issued to Lieutenant Andrew Bulger, who also earned the Military General Service Medal with clasps for Fort Detroit and Crysler’s Farm.

• 6TH MAY BOAT SERVICE 1814: Aided by the army, a contingent of two hundred men landed via boats and attacked Fort Orivego on the shore of Lake Ontario. One clasp was issued to James Wills.

• 14TH DEC. BOAT SERVICE 1814: Awarded for the Battle of Lake Borgne near New Orleans. This action resulted in the capture of five American gunboats and a sloop. Two hundred and fourteen clasps were issued.

• ENDYMION WH. PRESIDENT: Toward the end of the War of 1812 the USS President had been blockaded in New York but escaped to be chased by the HMS Endymion, and the two ships engaged off Sandy Hook. However, the President managed to escape only to encounter the HMS Pomone and HMS Tenedos, to which the President surrendered after a short engagement on January 15, 1815. Sixty-three clasps were issued.

Naming: Impressed Roman capitals with given name and surname for men, while officers’ medals included their abbreviated ranks.

Other: In total 24,000 medals were issued, 20,933 with a single clasp.

Number: Unknown for those related to Canada.

The Canada General Service Medal, 1866–70

Canada General Service Medal obverse.

Canada General Service Medal reverse.

Origins: This medal was created to recognize members of the Canadian Militia and British forces who saw service in Canada during the Fenian Raids of 1866 and 1870 as well as those who participated in the suppression of the Red River Rebellion. The Fenian Raids were precipitated by a group of Irish-American nationalists who sought to invade Canada and hold it for ransom, hoping that would force the British government to grant Ireland independence. Canadian authorities were aware of the Fenians’ intentions and mobilized the militia on March 7, 1866, with nearly ten thousand men called out. The militia was placed at public buildings, bridges, and border crossings in preparation for the attack. However, the extensive nature of the border made it impractical to defend it entirely.

The first incursion came at Waterloo, Quebec, on the evening of March 17, followed by an attack on April 14 on the Campobello and Indian Islands near Maine. These engagements were small in nature, with the largest attack coming on May 31 when John O’Neill and a force of 850 Fenians — in part demobilized soldiers who had fought in the U.S. Civil War — crossed the Niagara Frontier to invade Canada. On June 2 the Fenians were met by a force of 840 Canadian Militia troops, and the Battle of Ridgeway ensued for two hours, though the Canadians retired when it was falsely reported that the Fenians were going to attack with cavalry. The Fenians, learning that a larger force was en route, returned to the security of the U.S. side of the border.

A final engagement took place on June 22 when a small party of Fenians crossed the Vermont border into Quebec and fired at a group of seventy-five soldiers present at Pigeon Hill. The Fenians again fled across the border. Matters subsided and the U.S. government condemned the Fenian incursions. O’Neill and the Fenians returned four years later on May 25, 1870, with two raids taking place, the first at Eccles Hill and a second on the Trout River on May 27.

The Red River Expedition took place between May 14 and August 24, 1870, when Colonel Garnet Wolseley’s force arrived at Fort Garry (Red River). The origins of the conflict can be found in the expansion of Canadian authority over western Canada and the maltreatment of the Métis and First Nations populations. The government had obtained sovereignty over Rupert’s Land from the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1869 and embarked on an ambitious plan to survey the mass of territory and to assert political authority, something that became a paramount point of contention.

The Métis were unhappy with plans to do land surveys, particularly since they did not possess clear title to the land and had settled it according to the seigneurial system rather than the township system. As a result, fears grew that their property would be expropriated. The Métis disrupted the surveying work and eventually prevented the new lieutenant governor from entering the territory. Subsequently, they captured Fort Garry on November 2, 1869.

Louis Riel, with the support of many Métis, attempted to negotiate terms with Canada and demanded fourteen specific rights be granted. Following unrest among some of the anglophone population, who were by this point imprisoned for their resistance, the Métis National Committee proclaimed a provisional government. The government sent Donald Smith (later to become Lord Strathcona) to negotiate an agreement, dealing with matters such as bilingualism and representation in the legislative body to be.

Around the same time a number of the anglophones who had been imprisoned had escaped, while others were paroled. Some of this group began agitating to overthrow the provisional government and gathered recruits. A party of nearly fifty was captured by Riel, and a trial was held in which one of the leaders of the anglophone group, Thomas Scott, was convicted of defying the authority of the provisional government and sentenced to death. A botched execution took place on March 4, and even after being shot in the face, Scott managed to survive for an additional ten hours.

The execution of Scott, an avowed Orangeman, galvanized opinion in English and Protestant Canada and played a role in the government’s decision to send the military to Red River. The arrival of Wolseley signalled the end of the rebellion. Riel fled and remained in exile until 1884. The rebellion played a central part in the creation of the Province of Manitoba, which entered Confederation in 1870.

Criteria: Service on active duty in the regular and colonial forces during the Fenian Raid in 1866, the Fenian Raid in 1870, or participation in the Red River Expedition in 1870. The service required as set by AO 32/January 1889 specified that the medal would only be awarded to survivors who “during the operations specified … performed under competent authority 1) active service in the field, or 2) served as guards at any point where an attack from the enemy was expected, or 3) who were detailed for some specific service or duty.”

Insignia: A silver medal 36 mm in diameter bearing on the obverse a veiled effigy of Queen Victoria circumscribed by the text VICTORIA REGINA ET IMPERATRIX, the reverse displaying a wreath of natural maple leaves around the Canadian Red Ensign with the text CANADA at the top. Obverse design by T. Brock; reverse by George William de Saulles.

Suspender: A swivelling claw suspender with a straight bar.

Ribbon: A 32 mm wide ribbon divided into equal portions of red, white, and red.

Clasps: A clasp measuring 8 mm by 35 mm with a raised edge. Thee clasps were issued with this medal, individually and in various combinations:

• FENIAN RAIDS 1866.

• FENIAN RAIDS 1870.

• RED RIVER 1870.

Naming: Impressed or engraved upper and lower case letters, rank, initials, surname, and unit.

Other: Specimens engraved with CWM SPECIMEN also exist.

Number: 17,644.

• Fenian Raid 1866: 11,221.

• Fenian Raid 1870: 4,510.

• Red River: 355.

• Fenian Raid 1866 and Fenian Raid 1870: 1,411.

• Fenian Raid 1866 and Red River 1870: 120.

• Fenian Raid 1870 and Red River 1870: 15.

• All Three Clasps: 12.

The North West Canada Medal (1885)

Origins: After the failure of the Red River Rebellion of 1870, the Métis leader Louis Riel went into exile, only to return with much encouragement from the Métis and other settlers in July 1884. The expansion of the Canadian Pacific Railway into the Canadian West and dwindling bison population had the effect of further marginalizing the Métis and First Nations peoples. Despite the repeated entreaties of the Métis and First Nations to secure certain rights and land, the dominion government ignored the situation. In an effort to force the government to negotiate, Riel formed the Provisional Government of Saskatchewan at Batoche.

North West Canada Medal obverse.

The situation escalated rapidly, with the Métis attacking a detachment of the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) and Prince Albert Volunteers at Duck Lake. Ottawa realized that a full-scale uprising was in the offing. As a result, the militia was mobilized and a force was dispatched to suppress the rebellion. After the Battle of Duck Lake, Battleford was looted by a Cree raiding party, which was followed by the Frog Lake Massacre, where nine locals were killed, including a government official. At Fort Pitt, Cree intercepted a NWMP scouting party, and the town garrison surrendered. The Battle of Fish Creek halted General Middleton’s advance on Batoche, the Métis having defeated a much larger force of government troops. Outside Battleford, the Battle of Cut Knife Hill took place, and again government forces were defeated, this time by the Cree.

The key battle of the rebellion took place on May 9, 1885, with the Battle of Batoche where the Métis, greatly outnumbered, exhausted their supply of ammunition and Riel surrendered on May 15. Several smaller engagements followed, namely, the Battle of Frenchman’s Butte and the Battle of Loon Lake. The conflict concluded on July 2, 1885, with the surrender of Chief Big Bear.

Criteria: Awarded to officers and soldiers who participated in quelling the North-West Rebellion. Initially, only those members of the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) who had served under fire were eligible for the medal. The criteria for this medal were gradually broadened with the passage of time and lobbying efforts on the part of various veterans. In 1900 an order-in-council was approved allowing for NWMP members not under fire to receive the medal. The last group to be awarded the medal was civilian members of the Transport Service, which occurred in April 1945. Recipients of the medal were also granted 320 acres of land and script worth $80. The clasp SASKATCHEWAN was awarded to those who participated in any of the three main engagements that took place during the rebellion, notably those at the Saskatchewan River (Cut Knife Hill), Fish River, and Batoche.

North West Canada Medal reverse.

Insignia: A silver medal 36 mm in diameter, the obverse bearing an effigy of Queen Victoria wearing a diadem and veil, circumscribed by the text VICTORIA REGINA ET IMPERATRIX. The reverse displays a flourish of natural maple leaves in a wreath with the text NORTH WEST 1885 CANADA in the centre on three lines. The design concept was devised by Lord Lansdowne, the formal design of the obverse by L.C. Wyon, and of the reverse by Thomas Brock.

Saskatchewan Bar to the North West Canada Medal.

Suspender: A swivelling claw suspender with a straight bar.

Ribbon: A pearl grey ribbon 32 mm wide edged on each side by stripes of crimson inset 3 mm from the outer edge.

Clasps: A silver clasp 35 mm wide and 7 mm high with a double raised edge and the text SASKATCHEWAN. The medal was not always issued with a clasp.

Naming: This medal is found both unnamed and in a variety of naming styles.

Other: An unofficial clasp, BATOCHE, can also be found occasionally. Copies of both clasps are known to have been manufactured.

Number: 5,650 (1,753 with the clasp SASKATCHEWAN).

The Egyptian Medal (1882–89)

Egyptian Medal obverse.

Egyptian Medal reverse.

Origins: With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the strategic and commercial importance of Egypt became greatly enhanced. Egypt was ruled by the Ottoman Empire khedive, Ismail Pasha, who through financial mismanagement and corruption precipitated great political instability in the country that resulted in his removal by the Turks in 1879. That same year, Colonel Ahmad Arabi led a revolt against Tewfik Pasha, Ismail Pasha’s son and successor, and for three years the country was embroiled in further turmoil. After a squadron of British and French ships arrived in Alexandria’s harbour in 1882 demanding that Tewfik Pasha’s authority be restored, anti-European sentiment became intense, riots broke out in the city, and the European population was attacked.

By early June, rebellion broke out and the Egyptian authorities were unable to quell the disturbances or prevent a massacre. With this the British fleet bombarded Alexandria, the French having withdrawn. British forces subsequently landed and sought to restore Tewfik Pasha’s power and drive Arabi out of the country, which was achieved after the capture of Cairo in September 1882.

With the conquest of Egypt, Britain inherited Sudan, which was administered by Egypt and had long been a haven for the slave trade. While Britain and Egypt were at war, a religious fanatic known as the Mahdi rose to power in Sudan. By 1884 the British, along with their new Egyptian allies, marched through Sudan to rid the country of the Mahdi. The initial force was massacred with a loss of ten thousand men. Major-General Charles G. Gordon, a British army officer who had formerly served as governor general of Sudan, was placed in command of a force largely composed of the Egyptian Army. By March 1884, Gordon was besieged in Khartoum with no means of escape, and debate raged in Britain about what should be done. After nearly six months of discussion, General Wolseley was ordered to rescue Gordon.

The British government requested that Canada send troops to assist in the Egyptian campaign, an appeal already made to the colonial government in New South Wales (Australia). Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, however, declined to have the Canadian militia involved but did support Wolseley’s request for Canadian boatmen to navigate the rapids of the Nile River on specially constructed boats.

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