Читать книгу Tropical Marine Ecology - Daniel M. Alongi - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1FIGURE 1.1 Annual mean sea surface temperatures in the global ocean, 2005–20...

2 Chapter 2FIGURE 2.1 Mean daily solar insolation (kWh m⁻² d⁻¹) in the glob...FIGURE 2.2 Annual mean absorbed solar radiation, outgoing longwave radiation...FIGURE 2.3 Annual mean net surface heat flux (W m⁻²) into the global o...FIGURE 2.4 Late‐seventeenth century chart of global trade winds. (top) Atlan...FIGURE 2.5 Latitudinal distribution of the annually averaged surface water b...FIGURE 2.6 Annual mean global precipitation (mm per year) from the IMERG cli...FIGURE 2.7 Global distribution of monsoon domains and their local components...FIGURE 2.8 Global tracks and intensity of all tropical storms, 1856–2006....FIGURE 2.9 The three phases of the El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Duri...FIGURE 2.10 Trends in surface (< 50 m depth) ocean carbonate chemistry calcu...FIGURE 2.11 Model ratios of ensemble averaged 20 year mean sea‐level rise an...

3 Chapter 3FIGURE 3.1 Main currents of the world ocean showing the main cold and warm f...FIGURE 3.2 Pathways of the Indonesian Throughflow between the Pacific and In...FIGURE 3.3 Global distribution of semi‐diurnal, diurnal, and mixed tides....FIGURE 3.4 Distribution of tidal ranges across the world ocean.

4 Chapter 4FIGURE 4.1 Latitudinal distribution of sediment types and composition on the...FIGURE 4.2 Model of sandy beaches from reflective to dissipative types with ...FIGURE 4.3 Global distribution of sandy shorelines. The coloured dots along ...FIGURE 4.4 Global distribution of mangrove forests. The green bars outside t...FIGURE 4.5 Global seagrass area relative to the maximum potential seagrass a...FIGURE 4.6 Global distribution of coral reefs. The coloured areas indicate s...FIGURE 4.7 Schematic of an idealised coral reef showing various reef zones f...FIGURE 4.8 Idealised scheme defining the coastal ocean and the coastal zone ...FIGURE 4.9 Major stages in sediment dispersal of river sediments in the coas...FIGURE 4.10 Idealised scheme of the factors and processes contributing to ve...

5 Chapter 5FIGURE 5.1 Map of the Atlantic Ocean showing warm‐temperate biogeographic pr...FIGURE 5.2 Ecoregions of zooxanthellate corals of the Coral Triangle with de...FIGURE 5.3 Ecoregions of zooxanthellate corals delineated based on known fau...FIGURE 5.4 Marine realms (a) with ecoregions (b) across the global ocean. 1 ...FIGURE 5.5 Latitudinal diversity gradient of eastern and western Pacific mar...

6 Chapter 6FIGURE 6.1 Demographic density dependence showing an input rate (birth, immi...FIGURE 6.2 Model of the relationship of species diversity to variation in ab...FIGURE 6.3 Potential feedback mechanisms supporting competitive phase shifts...FIGURE 6.4 Relative dominance model in which the abundance of four major fun...FIGURE 6.5 Rendering of the physical structure of a living coral polyp, zoox...FIGURE 6.6 Mutualism between healthy seagrass and the lucinid bivalve, Lorip...FIGURE 6.7 The crown of thorns starfish, Acanthaster spp., preying on live c...FIGURE 6.8 Relationship between conspecific dominance and cumulative amount ...FIGURE 6.9 Relationship between the species richness of grapsid crabs and ma...FIGURE 6.10 Conceptual model of how predator–prey interactions in seagrass b...FIGURE 6.11 Conceptual model of a seagrass food web under (a) normal and (b)...FIGURE 6.12 Simplified diagram of a trophic cascade. A trophic cascade occur...FIGURE 6.13 Effects of fishing impacts on reef food web structure and functi...FIGURE 6.14 Evidence of trophic cascades in different tropical environments....

7 Chapter 7FIGURE 7.1 Latitudinal trends in species richness in sandy beach macrofauna ...FIGURE 7.2 Patterns of (a) species richness, (b) abundance and (c) biomass i...FIGURE 7.3 Latitudinal patterns in life history traits of the mole crabs, Em...FIGURE 7.4 Species richness on tropical sandy beaches defined as ecoregions....FIGURE 7.5 Relative percentage of benthic faunal abundances in (a) upper (b)...FIGURE 7.6 The benthic response to seasonal variations influencing the Celes...FIGURE 7.7 A simplified visualisation of the microbial consortia and their i...FIGURE 7.8 Idealised model of infaunal responses and sedimentary fabric to d...FIGURE 7.9 Global map of the ecosystem province system of Longhurst (2007) s...

8 Chapter 8FIGURE 8.1 Comparison in CO₂ assimilation rates between various species of m...FIGURE 8.2 Latitudinal changes in net daytime canopy production of mangroves...FIGURE 8.3 Mangrove net primary production (a) as litterfall, wood, and fine...FIGURE 8.4 Comparison of above‐ground net primary production in mangrove and...FIGURE 8.5 The relationship between forest age and net daytime canopy produc...FIGURE 8.6 Latitudinal distribution of maximum seagrass biomass, production ...FIGURE 8.7 Primary productivity on different coral reef zones. The minimum a...FIGURE 8.8 Patterns of primary production in relation to salinity in the plu...FIGURE 8.9 Satellite image of the global distribution of annual marine net p...

9 Chapter 9FIGURE 9.1 Monthly mean egg production rate (triangles) and weight‐specific ...FIGURE 9.2 Net rates of sediment O₂ consumption versus latitude. Dots are co...FIGURE 9.3 Landings (tonnes) of global (blue) and tropical (green) wild capt...

10 Chapter 10FIGURE 10.1 Conceptual model of the flow of energy and materials through an ...FIGURE 10.2 Conceptual model of benthic food web interactions in aerobic and...FIGURE 10.3 C flow model of the reflective sandy beach/ surf‐zone ecosystem ...FIGURE 10.4 C flow model of an exposed sandy beach on the west coast of Cape...FIGURE 10.5 Trophic model of interactions among food web members in the rock...FIGURE 10.6 Trophic model of interactions among food web members in the rock...FIGURE 10.7 Model of a simplified seagrass bed food web. Solid and broken ar...FIGURE 10.8 C and N model for the reef flat seagrass meadows at Bolinao, The...FIGURE 10.9 The annual budget and fate of leaf‐derived carbon in an intertid...FIGURE 10.10 Annual budget of seagrass carbon in a lagoon on the northern co...FIGURE 10.11 A carbon mass balance model through the world’s mangrove forest...FIGURE 10.12 Drivers of seasonal differences in CO₂ effluxes from mangrove s...FIGURE 10.13 Carbon and alkalinity fluxes of riverine inputs across a mangro...FIGURE 10.14 Food web dynamics in coral reefs of French Frigate Shoals. Annu...FIGURE 10.15 The sponge loop in relation to carbon and detritus cycling on a...FIGURE 10.16 C budget (mmol C m⁻² d⁻¹) for inner shelf sediments...FIGURE 10.17 Global (a) air‐sea fluxes and (b) magnitude of interannual vari...FIGURE 10.18 Mean seasonal and annual variations in estimated air–sea CO₂ fl...

11 Chapter 11FIGURE 11.1 The N cycle under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, showing the ...FIGURE 11.2 The P cycle in the coastal and marine environment. Major transfo...FIGURE 11.3 N budget and recycling in the Sundays beach/surf zone in South A...FIGURE 11.4 The relationship between ammonification rate and rate of total i...FIGURE 11.5 The relationship between rates of soil denitrification and age o...FIGURE 11.6 N cycling in the world’s mangrove ecosystems. Mean fluxes = Gg N...FIGURE 11.7 Annual P budget for the Indian Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem. St...FIGURE 11.8 Benthic N cycling in surface (0–20 cm) sediments of (a) Arlingto...FIGURE 11.9 Contribution of the main benthic coral reef components to the in...

12 Chapter 12FIGURE 12.1 Factors that may contribute to the recovery of invertebrate comm...FIGURE 12.2 Mean concentrations of (a) iron, (b) copper, (c) zinc, (d) cadmi...FIGURE 12.3 (a) Map of Costa Rica and Panama showing study sites and (b) mea...FIGURE 12.4 Comparison of mean heavy metal concentrations in fossil coral se...FIGURE 12.5 Changes in the biomass of various primary producers in shallow c...FIGURE 12.6 Conceptual model of the effects of fish excretion on (top) coral...FIGURE 12.7 Flow of shrimp pond‐derived nitrogen in the Wenchang/Wenjiao est...FIGURE 12.8 Mean rates of mangrove soil denitrification simulated by labile ...FIGURE 12.9 Herbicide concentration‐response curves for the seagrasses, (a) FIGURE 12.10 Effect of (a) diuron concentration and (b) atrazine concentrati...FIGURE 12.11 Sources and pathways of microplastics in the ocean.FIGURE 12.12 Schematic indicating pathways and impacts of microplastics on r...FIGURE 12.13 Comparison of the median total plastic consumed, plastic egeste...FIGURE 12.14 Percentage of diseased coral colonies of common species. Only s...FIGURE 12.15 Model of native (solid line) and non‐native (dashed line) speci...

13 Chapter 13FIGURE 13.1 Coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef.FIGURE 13.2 Representation of the impact of heat stress on coral host and sy...FIGURE 13.3 Recovery of (a) underwater net photosynthesis and (b) dark respi...FIGURE 13.4 (a) Map of east coast of Florida showing the long‐term increase ...FIGURE 13.5 The relationship between water temperature and mortality for the...FIGURE 13.6 The relationship between measured rates of mangrove soil accreti...FIGURE 13.7 Representation of model results showing the complexity of mangro...FIGURE 13.8 Experimental study showing a decline in calcification of the cor...FIGURE 13.9 Mean coral recruit health assessment of each treatment (pooled a...FIGURE 13.10 Interrelationships between temperature, atmospheric CO₂ concent...FIGURE 13.11 Seasonal (summer, winter), water depth (1 and 5 m), and water r...FIGURE 13.12 Diel variations in dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in water...FIGURE 13.13 Model projection of mean twenty‐first century changes (“anomali...FIGURE 13.14 Projected change in species number (top), species invasion (mid...FIGURE 13.15 Projections of three models of mean twenty‐first century change...FIGURE 13.16 Mean projected changes in maximum catch potential (%) in the At...FIGURE 13.17 Projected global changes in maximum catch potential (%) under t...

14 Chapter 14FIGURE 14.1 Long‐term decline in live coral cover on degrading Caribbean ree...FIGURE 14.2 Decadal trends in global areal extent of seagrasses. (a) Median ...FIGURE 14.3 Global distribution of mangrove loss and its drivers from 2000 t...FIGURE 14.4 Anthropogenic and natural losses at regional scales: (a) 2000–20...FIGURE 14.5 Percentage mangrove deforestation in Southeast Asia between 2000...FIGURE 14.6 Proportion of mangrove deforestation, 2001–2016 by each driver c...FIGURE 14.7 Mangrove area gains and losses during the 1996–2007 (left panel)...