Читать книгу The Handy American History Answer Book - David L Hudson - Страница 11
ОглавлениеWhy did the British colonies in America become discontented with the government of King George III?
King George III (1738–1820, r. 1760–1820) was one of Great Britain’s longest-ruling monarchs. While he enjoyed successes during his reign, such as leading England’s victory in the Seven Years’ War and, later, the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, his tight grip on the American colonies caused the settlers there to bristle. The king supported a number of economic burdens imposed upon the Colonies by the British Parliament because the Americans were proving financially successful, and their taxes helped England. At least until the Americans rebelled.
What was the Stamp Act?
The Stamp Act of 1765 was a direct tax imposed by the British Parliament upon the American colonies. Under it, the colonies had to pay taxes on much printed paper created in London. Basically, the colonists had to pay taxes on everything written or printed. The measure was a revenue-generated measure designed to pay expenses associated with British troops stationed in North America to protect the colonies in battles against the French and some Indian tribes, a conflict collectively known as the Seven Years’ War. The colonies viewed the Stamp Act as oppressive and unfair. The colonies believed the taxes were particularly unfair because they had no voice in Parliament. The phrase “taxation without representation” encapsulated some colonists’ reactions to the Stamp Act.
Colonists from several states sent representatives to a meeting in New York known as the Stamp Act Congress. This body approved a resolution, stating that only the colonial legislatures could tax the colonists. One of the measures read: “That is inseparably essential to the freedom of a people, and the undoubted rights of Englishmen, that no taxes should be imposed on them, but with their own consent, given personally, or by their own representatives.” Another read: “That the only representatives of the people of these colonies are persons chosen therein, by themselves, and that no taxes ever have been or can be constitutionally imposed on them but by their respective legislatures.”
Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766, causing widespread celebration in the colonies. But the British Parliament then passed the Declaratory Act, which reaffirmed Parliament’s resolve to pass other tax measures on the colonies. Parliament also passed the Townshend Acts.
What were the Townshend Acts?
The Townshend Acts were a series of laws designed to raise revenue for the British crown by taxing the colonists. Charles Townshend (1725–1767), the Crown’s Chancellor of the Exchequer, proposed the revenue laws that—like the Stamp Act—sought to tax the colonists to raise money for the British Crown. Townshend and others believed that colonial opposition to the Stamp Act arose primarily because the Stamp Act was a direct and internal tax. The Townshend Acts imposed taxes on products imported into the United States—such as lead, paper, print, and glass. However, colonists opposed the Townshend Acts, believing them to violate the basic principle of “taxation without representation.”
What was the New England Restraining Act?
The New England Restraining Act was a law approved by King George III in March 1775, forbidding the New England colonies from trading with any countries except England. In April, the law was extended to apply to several other colonies in the Mid-Atlantic region, including Maryland, New Jersey, and others. The law was a direct response to the colonists’ efforts to boycott British goods. It was also an attempt to put a stranglehold on the rising tides of rebellion in certain parts of New England.
What was “salutary neglect”?
Salutary neglect was the name given to the longstanding British policy of taking a hands-off approach to the American colonies. This policy lasted from the early seventeenth century through the bulk of the eighteenth century—until the 1760s, when the British crown needed revenue to pay for the expense of fighting wars in North America.
Charles Townshend was a son of a viscount. As a politician, one of his important positions was exchequer, during which he proposed raising taxes on the American colonists.
The term is traced to Edmund Burke (1729–1797), a political theorist who served for many years in the House of Commons. In a 1775 speech, Burke said that “through a wise and salutary neglect, a generous nature has been suffered to take her own way to perfection.” Historians explain that salutary neglect in part contributed to the Revolutionary War because for many years colonists had been able to govern themselves largely free from the Crown’s influence or direct control. When the British Parliament began to impose laws directly controlling the colonists, they reacted unfavorably. Burke urged his colleagues in the Parliament to treat the colonists with respect or face armed rebellion. “Great empires and little minds go ill together,” he said.
What was Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania?
Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania was a series of essays authored in 1767 and 1768 under the pen name “A Farmer,” which objected to “excesses and outrages” of the British crown. The author was Pennsylvania legislator and lawyer John Dickinson (1732–1808). Dickinson believed the British monarchy exceeded its authority by passing tax laws such as the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts. Dickinson opposed the British policies but did not advocate violence against the British.
What was the Boston Massacre?
The Boston Massacre refers to a killing on King’s Street in Boston on March 5, 1770. British soldiers had been sent to Boston to maintain order amidst the growing unpopularity of British measures, such as the Townshend Acts. Many colonists viewed the British soldiers with resentment and suspicion. In March 1770, a group of British soldiers were guarding the local customs house. Several young colonists began shouting at the soldiers. Apparently feeling threatened, the soldiers fired into the growing throng of people. They killed five people and injured six others. The event came to be known as the Boston Massacre.
What colonial lawyers defended the British soldiers?
The British soldiers—including Captain Thomas Preston—were successfully defended by Boston lawyers John Adams (1735–1826), the future second president of the United States, and Josiah Quincy (1744–1775). Adams and Quincy secured an acquittal for Preston, who was alleged to have given the order to fire into the crowd.
What was the Boston Tea Party?
The Boston Tea Party was a protest organized by a group of protestors in Massachusetts known as the Sons of Liberty. Organized by Boston political leader Samuel Adams, the men protested the Tea Act of 1773, which culminated in their boarding ships and dumping the tea they contained into Boston Harbor. This caused an intense crackdown by the British authorities with a series of even more restrictive measures, known as the Intolerable Acts. The Boston Tea Party is seen as the act of protest that ultimately led to the Revolutionary War. John Adams called the event an “epoch in history.”
The Boston Tea Party museum offers a full range of historical experiences for visitors, including films and the chance to participate in a reenactment of the dumping of the tea into Boston Harbor.
Parliament responded with a series of laws, called “Intolerable Acts” by the colonists. One of these—called the Quartering Act—empowered British officials to quarter, or house, soldiers in colonists’ homes. This law inspired the later passage of the Constitution’s Third Amendment. Another act prohibited Massachusetts colonists from electing members to the upper house of their legislature.
Who started the Boston Tea Party?
Many believe that on December 13, 1773, patriot Samuel Adams (1722–1803) gave the signal to the men, who may have numbered more than one hundred and were dressed as Indians, to board the ships in Boston Harbor and dump the tea overboard. Whether or not it was Adams who started the Tea Party, about this there can be no doubt: He was most certainly a leader in the agitation that led up to the event. The show of resistance was in response to the recent passage by the British parliament of the Tea Act, which allowed the British-owned East India company to “dump” tea on the American colonies at a low price, and also required the colonists to pay a duty for said tea. Colonists feared the Act would put local merchants out of business and that if they conceded to pay the duty to the British, they would soon be required to pay other taxes as well.
Once the ships carrying the tea arrived in Boston Harbor, the colonists tried to have them sent back to England. But when Governor Thomas Hutchinson (1711–1780) of Massachusetts refused to order the return of the ships, patriots organized their show of resistance, which came to be known as the Boston Tea Party.
Who was Thomas Paine, and why were his philosophies important to the American Revolution?
English political philosopher and author Thomas Paine (1737–1809) believed that a democracy is the only form of government that can guarantee natural rights. Paine arrived in the American colonies in 1774. Two years later he wrote Common Sense, a pamphlet that galvanized public support for the American Revolution (1775–1783), which was already underway. Published in July 1776, more than 100,000 copies of it were sold that year. Paine wrote that “we have it in our power to begin the world over again.” He wrote passionately about the importance of freedom in society. He accused the British king of engaging “in a long and violent abuse of power.” In Common Sense, he waxed eloquently about the need for freedom. He concluded:
These proceedings may at first appear strange and difficult; but, like all other steps which we have already passed over, will in a little time become familiar and agreeable; and, until an independence is declared, the continent will feel itself like a man who continues putting off some unpleasant business from day to day, yet knows it must be done, hates to set about it, wishes it over, and is continually haunted with the thoughts of its necessity.
Common Sense may have been Paine’s most well-known publication, but it was not his only contribution. During the struggle for independence, Paine wrote and distributed a series of sixteen papers, called Crisis, upholding the rebels’ cause in their fight. Paine penned his words in the language of common speech, which helped his message reach a mass audience in America and elsewhere. “We have it in our power to begin the world over again,” Paine wrote in language that resonated with many colonists.
He soon became known as an advocate of individual freedom. The fight for freedom was one that he waged in letters. In 1791 and 1792, Paine, now back in England, released The Rights of Man (in two parts), in which he defended the cause of the French Revolution (1789–1799) and appealed to the British people to overthrow their monarchy. For this he was tried and convicted of treason in his homeland. Escaping to Paris, the philosopher became a member of the revolutionary National Convention. But during the Reign of Terror (1793–1794) of revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), Paine was imprisoned for being English. An American minister interceded on Paine’s behalf, insisting that Paine was actually an American. Paine was released on this technicality. He remained in Paris until 1802 and then returned to the United States. Though he played an important role in the American Revolution by boosting the morale of the colonists, he nevertheless lived his final years as an outcast and in poverty. Historian Joseph Ellis writes in his highly readable history American Creation: “Paine was an indispensable ally in the cause of American independence. But the combination of his utopian convictions and his brilliant pen also made him the most dangerous man in America once his independence was declared.” (p. 44)
What two colonial-era leaders founded the first abolitionist society in the colonies?
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) and Dr. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813) of Pennsylvania founded the Society for the Relief of Free Negroes in Philadelphia in April 1775. In 1784, the society changed its name to the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage. Franklin added clout to the organization by serving as its first president. Many members of the organization were Quakers who had a strong opposition and moral revulsion to slavery.
What congressional body formed in response to the Intolerable Acts?
Colonist leaders formed the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1774. The leaders elected delegates to this body, which publicly condemned the Intolerable Acts as null and void. The Continental Congress also urged the creation of militias in the different colonies, understanding the need to arm themselves and protect their interests from possible further British incursions. The Continental Congress adopted the Suffolk Resolves, a series of resolutions opposed to British measures—such as the Intolerable Acts. These resolves not only opposed the Intolerable Acts but also called for Massachusetts and others to arm themselves.
Fifty-six men from twelve different colonies (all of the original thirteen except Georgia) attended the First Continental Congress, which first convened on September 5, 1774. The Congress debated whether to engage in armed conflict or seek reconciliation with the British crown. The Continental Congress supported a boycott of British goods. The First Continental Congress also called for the creation of a second Congress, which met in May 1775.
What luminaries in American history attended the First Continental Congress?
George Washington (1732–1799) and John Adams (1735–1826), the first two presidents of the United States, attended the First Continental Congress. Other famous attendees included John Jay (1745–1829), the first U.S. Supreme Court chief justice; Roger Sherman (1721–1793), the author of the “Great Compromise” that saved the U.S. Constitution; Sam Adams (1722–1803), the architect of the resistance in Boston against British rule; and John Dickinson, author of the Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer.
The First Continental Congress met here at Carpenters’ Hall in Philadelphia in 1774.
Who said “Give me liberty or give me death”?
Patrick Henry (1736–1799) uttered this famous revolutionary phrase on March 23, 1775, in the Virginia House of Burgesses. Henry spoke these words upon learning that the British Parliament refused to repeal the Intolerable Acts. Henry believed the colonists needed to revolt in order to obtain freedom from the repressive measures of the British government. Henry was an attorney who also served as governor of Virginia. Henry is considered one of the leaders of the American Revolutionary War effort. He had earlier gained acclaim for his opposition to the Stamp Act and his drafting of the so-called Virginia Resolves against the Stamp Act.
Who was James Otis?
James Otis, Jr. (1725–1783) was a Massachusetts lawyer most famous for challenging writs of assistance and for uttering the slogan “Taxation without representation is tyranny.” Writs of assistance were general search warrants that British officials used to search colonial ships to determine whether the ships were engaged in smuggling. Opposition to these writs of assistance led to the adoption of the protections found in the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits government officials from engaging in unreasonable searches and seizures.
Otis gained renown for representing a group of Boston merchants who challenged the fairness and constitutionality of writs of assistance. Otis’s passion in argument for his clients made him a popular man in revolutionary circles. Otis also wrote a series of tracts challenging British policies on taxation. Otis also showed forward thinking on race relations, particularly for his time period.
Who were the Loyalists?
Loyalists were American colonists who remained loyal to the British crown and opposed the American Revolutionary War effort. They were also called Tories or King’s Men. Historians have estimated that at least fifteen percent of the colonial population considered themselves Loyalists. Many Loyalists avoided actual military conflict. Some Loyalists actively joined the British military cause, particularly if British officials came to their particular town.
WAR BREAKS OUT
What were the first battles of the Revolutionary War?
The first battles were the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, fought on April 19, 1775. British forces led by General Thomas Gage learned that some colonists were storing weapons in Concord. Gage led a group of British forces to march upon Concord, disarm the colonists, and arrest colonial leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock. The British forces marched toward Concord and engaged in gunfire first at Lexington. More heavy fighting took place at Concord.
Who were Paul Revere and William Dawes?
Paul Revere (1734–1818) was a silversmith best known for riding by horseback through Massachusetts to warn leaders in different cities that British forces were marching toward Lexington and Concord. Gage’s wife Margaret warned Dr. Joseph Warren (1741–1775) of the impending plan. Warren in turn told Revere and enlisted him to go on his famous ride to warn colonial leaders of the impending assault. Revere became famous in part because of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s poem “Paul Revere’s Ride.”
Revere was not the only midnight rider. The other was William Dawes (1745–1799), who also was instructed by Dr. Warren to warn John Hancock and Samuel Adams of their impending arrest. Dawes has been ignored in American history. Author Michael Farquhar calls Dawes “the other Midnight Rider” in his book A Treasury of Foolishly Forgotten Americans. He writes that “William Dawes had the misfortune of being at the right place but with the wrong rhyme.”
Who was Joseph Warren?
Joseph Warren was a doctor in Boston who played a leading role in the American Revolution, particularly in the early days in Boston. He served as president of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress and wrote “A List of Infringements and Violations of Rights” at a Boston town meeting in November 1772 that aroused the passions of others.
Warren fought bravely in the Revolutionary War, eschewing his own personal safety. He told his mother, who pleaded with him to avoid further conflict: “Where danger is, dear mother, there must your son be. Now is no time for any of America’s children to shrink from any hazard. I will set her free or die.”
Who were the Minutemen?
The Minutemen were a group of men from Massachusetts drawn from the state’s militia who engaged British forces at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. They were called the Minutemen because allegedly they could be prepared for battle immediately—or in a minute.
Who was Ethan Allen?
Ethan Allen (1738–1789) was a Revolutionary War hero and later one of the founders of Vermont. Allen and Benedict Arnold captured the British garrison at Fort Ticonderoga on May 10, 1775. In September 1775, Allen was captured at the Battle of Longue-Pointe. Allen led a band of fighting men from the colonies and Canada in an attempt to capture Montreal from British forces. Unfortunately, the Canadian and British militia had a stronger force, defeating Allen. He was not released from captivity until several years later. He later wrote a memoir about this time in captivity.
What was Bunker Hill?
Bunker Hill was the name of a significant early battle in the Revolutionary War—known as the Battle of Bunker Hill in Charleston, Massachusetts. Fought in June 1775, American militia were able to inflict heavy casualties on British forces, although the Americans eventually had to repeat. Most of the actual combat at the Battle of Bunker Hill actually took place on Breed’s Hill. The Americans suffered casualties in the combat too, however, including Dr. Joseph Warren.
At the battle, William Prescott led about twelve hundred colonial troops in battle against a larger British force led by General William Howe (1729–1814). Some historians have said Prescott uttered the famous phrase “don’t fire until you see the whites of their eyes.” Colonial forces repelled the first two assaults by British troops. The British were able to capture Bunker Hill on their third assault, obtaining a technical victory. However, the victory was often seen as a Pyrrhic victory, in part because the British suffered more casualties than their colonial opponents.
An illustration depicting the 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill, which actually mostly occurred on Breed’s Hill.
Why were there two Continental Congresses?
Both meetings were called in reaction to the British Parliament’s attempts to assert its control in the American colonies. When colonial delegates to the First Continental Congress met, they developed a plan but were obviously prepared for it not to work, since even before dismissal they agreed to reconvene if it were necessary to do so. In short, the First Continental Congress developed Plan A; the Second Continental Congress resorted to Plan B (one last appeal to King George) and then to Plan C (finally declaring independence from Britain).
The First Continental Congress convened on September 5, 1774, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The meeting was largely a reaction to the so-called Intolerable Acts (or the Coercive Acts), which Parliament had passed in an effort to control Massachusetts after the Boston Tea Party. Sentiment grew among the colonists that they would need to band together in order to challenge British authority. Soon twelve colonies dispatched fifty-six delegates to a meeting in Philadelphia. (The thirteenth colony, Georgia, declined to send representatives but agreed to go along with whatever plan the others developed.) Delegates included Samuel Adams (1722–1803), George Washington (1732–1799), Patrick Henry (1736–1799), John Adams (1735–1826), and John Jay (1745–1829). Each colony had one vote. When the meeting ended on October 26, the Congress petitioned the king, declaring that Parliament had no authority over the American colonies; that each colony could regulate its own affairs; and that the colonies would not trade with Britain until Parliament rescinded its trade and taxation policies. The petition stopped short of proclaiming independence from Britain, but the delegates agreed to meet again the following May—if necessary.
But King George III was determined that the British Empire be preserved at all costs. He believed that if the empire lost the American colonies, then there might be a domino effect, with other British possessions encouraged also to demand independence. He feared these losses would render Great Britain a minor state, rather than the power it was. Britain was unwilling to lose control in America, and in April 1775 fighting broke out between the Redcoats and the Patriots at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. So, as agreed, the colonies again sent representatives to Philadelphia, convening the Second Continental Congress on May 10. Delegates—including George Washington, John Hancock (1737–1793), Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), and Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)—organized and prepared for the fight, creating the Continental Army and naming Washington as its commander in chief. With armed conflict already underway, Congress nevertheless moved slowly toward proclaiming independence from Britain: On July 10, two days after issuing a declaration to take up arms, Congress made another appeal to King George, hoping to settle the matter without further conflict. The attempt failed, and the following summer the Second Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence, breaking off all ties with the mother country.
What does the Declaration of Independence say?
The Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776, has long been regarded as history’s most eloquent statement of the rights of the people. In it, not only did the thirteen American colonies declare their freedom from Britain, they also addressed the reasons for the proclamation (naming the “causes which impel them to the separation”) and cited the British government’s violations of individual rights, saying “the history of the present King ‘George III’ of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations,” which aimed to establish “an absolute tyranny over these States.”
The opening paragraphs go on to state the American ideal of government, an ideal that is based on the theory of natural rights. The Declaration of Independence puts forth the fundamental principles that a government exists for the benefit of its people and that “all men are created equal.” As chairman of the Second Continental Congress committee that prepared the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) wrote and presented the first draft to the Second Continental Congress on July 2, 1776.
The most frequently cited passage is:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
Artist John Trumbull’s famous oil depicting the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.
The Declaration then contained a lengthy list of abuses committed by King George, including:
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices,
and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat [sic] the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
What was the Olive Branch petition?
The Olive Branch petition was a document created by the Second Continental Congress in July 1775 as an attempt to avoid full-scale, armed conflict with the British monarchy. John Dickinson wrote the petition, signifying the colonists’ loyalty to the British crown, and calling on the King to avoid further hostilities. King George rejected the petition and sought to bring the colonies back into a mode of obedience to the Crown.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
When did the Second Continental Congress form?
The Second Continental Congress formed after the conflict at Lexington and Concord. It began meeting in May 1775. This congress called for the creation of a continental army. The congress believed a continental army would be superior to state militias. The Second Congress also nominated George Washington of Virginia to serve as general of the Continental Army. It acted as the basic leading governmental body for the colonists during the conflict.
Who was Richard Henry Lee?
Richard Henry Lee (1732–1794) was a leading Revolutionary War-era leader from Virginia who signed the Declaration of Independence, attended the First Continental Congress, and created a resolution in the Second Continental Congress calling for American independence. The famous Lee Resolution provided: “That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.”
Who was Nathan Hale?
Nathan Hale (1755–1776) was an American soldier from Connecticut in the Revolutionary War who was in New York at the time of conflict with British soldiers. The British nearly destroyed Washington’s armies, but much of the Army managed to retreat and avoid capture. Hale was on an espionage mission in New York when the British captured him. British General William Howe ordered him hanged. Allegedly, Hale then uttered these famous words: “How beautiful is death when earned by virtue! Who would not be that youth? What pity is it that we can die but once to serve our country.”
“The Last Words of Nathan Hale” (1858) by Scottish artist Alexander Hay Ritchie.
GEORGE WASHINGTON AND THE FIRST YEARS OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR
Who was George Washington?
George Washington (1732–1799) was the son of Augustine Washington, a well-to-do Virginia landowner and slaveowner who passed away when George was only eleven. After being educated by tutors and by Anglican clergymen in Fredericksburg, Virginia, at age seventeen he began work as a land surveyor in Culpeper County. Family connections later helped get him appointed a major in the Virginia Militia in 1753. During the Seven Years’ War, Washington showed great valor at the Battle of Monongahela (1755). That same year, he was promoted to Colonel of the Virginia Regiment, commanding all the military forces in the colony. In Virginia, Washington became increasingly politically active, opposing the Stamp Act in the Virginia Assembly. In 1775, he was appointed general and commander in chief of the Continental Army. An arduous war soon followed, but Washington led the Americans to victory in 1783. Four years later, he attended the Constitutional Convention and was made president of that convention. He was elected the first president of the newly formed United States, serving admirably from 1789 to 1797. Refusing to run for a third term, he retired to his home for the remaining two years of his life.
What colonial defeat led to the capture of Fort Washington?
British forces captured Fort Washington at the aptly named Battle of Fort Washington on Manhattan Island in November 1776. British forces under General William Howe had superior numbers and used them to their advantage to capture Fort Washington, leading to the capture of more than twenty-eight hundred colonial soldiers. This defeat caused a serious retreat on Washington’s part. He moved his troops through New Jersey into Pennsylvania and then Delaware.
Where did Washington begin to turn colonial fortunes around in the war?
Washington and his troops suffered defeats at the Battles of White Plains and Fort Washington. This had caused Washington to retreat through New Jersey. However, Washington managed to pull a few surprises and raise the morale of his troops. A prime example occurred at the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. Washington managed to attack a smaller British force, obtaining a victory that was more significant in terms of morale than actual military impact in the conflict. The battle helped the colonists to increase recruitment efforts to their cause.
What was the significance of Valley Forge?
Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, was the site of the Continental Army’s military camp during the bitter winter of 1777–1778. General George Washington chose this site for his men to try to recuperate from the superior British forces who had taken over Philadelphia, less than thirty miles away. Many of the American forces barely survived the brutal weather and lack of adequate food supplies. But the men managed to survive and eventually prevailed in the conflict.
General George Washington leads the Continental Army to Valley Forge in this 1883 painting by William B. T. Trego. Their survival through the winter of 1777–1778 was a true test of the determination of Washington’s troops.
Who was appointed the first surgeon general of the Continental Army?
Dr. Benjamin Church (1734–1788) was appointed the first surgeon general of the Continental Army in July 1775. Church had been active in the Sons of Liberty movement and resistance in Boston. However, Church was court-martialed in October 1775 for “criminal correspondence with the enemy.” Church had sent a letter to one Major Cane of the British forces, which did not disclose military secrets, but did declare his allegiance to the British crown. He remained imprisoned until 1778.
What American diplomat sought aid for the Revolutionary cause from France and was later branded a traitor?
Silas Deane (1737–1789) served as an American diplomat to France when the Continental Congress appointed him to serve as a colonial representative to try to secure military and financial aid from France in March 1776. Deane, however, later revealed his Loyalist ties and support of the British government. Many branded him a traitor. After the war, when he traveled back to the United States, he died under suspicious circumstances.
Who was Thomas Hickey?
Thomas Hickey (d. 1776) was a soldier who originally came to North America as part of a British force to fight the colonial Revolutionary War forces. However, Hickey deserted to the colonial side, managing to serve as part of General George Washington’s Life Guard, or Commander in Chief Guard, a special unit tasked with the purpose of protecting Washington.
Hickey was later charged with treason for allegedly conspiring to turn over Washington to the British. He was hanged in public on June 27, 1776—the first person executed for treason in the United States.
Who was Henry Knox?
Henry Knox (1755–1806) was George Washington’s chief artillery officer during the Revolutionary War. Knox owned a bookstore in Boston at the beginning of the conflict. He directed colonial cannon fire at the Battle of Bunker Hill. While not a soldier by trade, Knox acquired a deep interest in artillery. George Washington was impressed with Knox’s bravery and mental acumen in artillery matters. When Washington became president, he named Knox his secretary of war.
Who was Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben?
Baron von Steuben (1730–1794) was a Prussian military leader who served as George Washington’s chief of staff during the last years of the American Revolutionary War. A military expert, von Steuben is credited with increasing the discipline of the American forces at Valley Forge. He also taught the men the art of fighting with bayonets. He authored the Revolutionary War Drill Manual and became a major general for his efforts. Washington learned of von Steuben from Benjamin Franklin, who met von Steuben in France. Paul Lockhart authored an aptly named biography of von Steuben The Drillmaster of Valley Forge.
What was the significance of the Battles of Saratoga?
The Battles of Saratoga are viewed as the key turning point in the Revolutionary War. There were two battles fought on September 19 and October 7, 1777, near Saratoga, New York. British General John Burgoyne (1722–1792) attacked American forces led by General Horatio Gates (1727–1806) and won the battle despite enduring heavy casualties. However, Burgoyne pressed his luck on the second battle, suffering an ignominious defeat. Historians consider the second Battle of Saratoga as the key event that caused France officially to support the colonial cause. France’s foreign minister Charles Gravier believed the colonists’ victory showed they could win the war.
General Gates claimed credit for the victory, but General Benedict Arnold (before he defected to the British) may have been more instrumental for the American victory.
What other American military leader participated in the Battle of Saratoga and later became the country’s secretary of war?
General Benjamin Lincoln (1733–1810) played a significant role in the Battle of Saratoga in addition to other major battles in the Revolutionary War. He also participated in the Battle of Charleston in 1780, losing many casualties to British forces. Lincoln had to surrender to British forces after this battle. Lincoln earned a measure of redemption later in the war, as he was one of the American leaders who surrounded British commander Lord Cornwallis (1738–1805) at Yorktown.
Who was John Paul Jones?
John Paul Jones (1747–1792) was the fiery naval war hero for the colonies during the Revolutionary War. Born in Scotland, Jones entered the British maritime service at age twelve. He served on numerous ships through the years, rising through the ranks. For his exploits, he earned the moniker “Father of the U.S. Navy.” He served as lieutenant, commanding the ship Alfred for the Continental Navy. He later commanded the ship U.S.S. Ranger into battle with British naval forces. During a naval battle, Jones and the Ranger captured the British ship HMS Drake. He then commanded the ship Bonhomme Richard as its captain. He famously proclaimed, “I have not yet begun to fight” during the Battle of Flamborough Head, a naval battle during the Revolutionary War. He earned a Congressional gold medal in 1787.
Scottish-born John Paul Jones became known as the “Father of the U.S. Navy.”
Who was Daniel Morgan?
Daniel Morgan (1736–1802) was an American Revolutionary War leader known for his tactical skills and victories in battle during the Revolutionary War. He led an elite fighting force known as Morgan’s Riflemen. He fought for the British during the French and Indian War. During that conflict, he punched one of his superiors and was severely punished. This left him with a bitter distaste for the British. After distinguishing himself at the Battle of Lexington with his riflemen, Morgan led a group of forces to repel British troops in Canada. Perhaps his greatest victory occurred at the Battle of Cowpens in January 1781 in South Carolina. In 1790, he received a medal from Congress for his battle planning and tactics at Cowpens. A few years later, he helped suppress the Whiskey Rebellion.
What country was a key ally for the colonists in the Revolutionary War?
France served as a key ally for the colonists during the American Revolutionary War. Benjamin Franklin worked his diplomatic skills effectively as U.S. Ambassador to France to produce the so-called French alliance. In 1778, France recognized the colonists as a sovereign nation and gave much monetary and military aid to the colonists in their battle with Great Britain. That year, France and the United States entered into something known as the Treaty of Alliance. Under this agreement between French King Louis XVI and leaders of the Second Continental Congress, France agreed to provide military support in case the colonists faced continued military attack by the British.
Who was the Marquis de Lafayette?
Marquis de Lafayette (1756–1834) was a French military officer who earned fame for his valiant service for the American Revolutionary War effort, beginning in July 1777. Lafayette was motivated in part by a desire to avenge the death of his father, who had died at the hands of the British in the French and Indian War. He volunteered to fight for the American cause without pay and served as a major-general under George Washington’s Continental Army. He participated in numerous battles in the Revolutionary War, including the Battle of Brandywine, the Battle of Barren Hill, and the Battle of Monmouth. He suffered alongside many of Washington’s troops during Valley Forge. For his efforts, the Continental Congress praised him officially for his “gallantry, skill and prudence.”
In February 1779, he returned to France. He named his son after George Washington. He returned to America in 1780, serving at the Battles of Green Spring and York-town. When he returned to France in 1781, he was honored as a hero. He worked with Thomas Jefferson to set up trade agreements between the United States and France. He survived some difficult moments during the French Revolution. Many years later, in 1824 and 1825, he returned to the United States at the invitation of President James Monroe (1758–1831) as an honored guest and a symbol of the American Revolution.
Why did General Benedict Arnold betray the United States?
Benedict Arnold (1741–1801) was an American general who fought for the colonists in the Continental Army but then defected to the British. In the early stages of the Revolutionary War, he proved himself to be a brave leader, helping to capture Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and contributing to the success at Saratoga. However, Arnold was a spendthrift, finding himself in substantial debt. He also resented the fact that a number of officers of lower rank had been promoted ahead of him. After being placed in command of West Point in 1780, he decided to become a turncoat. Talking with the British in secret, he asked for money and a prominent role in the British Army; in return, he would turn over the fort at West Point to the British. But the plot was discovered, forcing Arnold to flee to the other side. He was put in command of British troops, fighting in Virginia and Connecticut against his former comrades. After the war, he lived in London, England, in semi-obscurity.
General Benedict Arnold’s name has become synonymous with “traitor” in the American lexicon, but before 1780 he was actually considered a brave and heroic military leader.
What battle effectively ended the Revolutionary War?
The Battle of Yorktown resulted in British commander Lord Cornwallis surrendering to General George Washington and other colonial forces. The battle took place in September and October 1781 as American army and naval forces surrounded Cornwallis’s troops. Colonial forces captured more than seven thousand British troops during the conflict. With the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, British officials realized they needed to end the costly war.
What song did the British drummers play after the surrender at Yorktown?
British drummers played the song “The World Turned Upside Down” as they headed with their American captors. Many of the British probably believed the lyrics of the song had come true.
What treaties ended the Revolutionary War?
The Peace of Paris officially ended the conflict between the British and American colonies. In September 1783, representatives of King George and American leaders met in Paris and signed the Treaty of Paris. Other treaties were needed to end the entire conflict, as the war also involved other world powers—including France and Spain. Under the agreements, Britain recognized the independence of the American colonies. Furthermore, Britain agreed that Florida would go to Spain, and Senegal would fall under the control of France. Diplomatic leaders signed the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783. The Second Continental Congress ratified the treaty on January 14, 1784.
