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Basic Principles

Many architectural styles have developed over the course of Japan’s long history. Nevertheless, there are several basic principles that can be found in the interesting but complex story told in the following pages. Some of these basic principles describe how core values have influenced the choice of building materials, techniques, and designs. Other principles emphasize cultural processes such as the relation between restraint and exuberance and a passion for preserving the past.

Natural Materials and Settings

Traditional Japanese architecture is characterized by a preference for natural materials, in particular wood. Since wood can breathe, it is suitable for the Japanese climate. Wood absorbs humidity in the wet months and releases moisture when the air is dry. With proper care and periodic repairs, traditional post-and-beam structures can last as long as 1,000 years. Other natural building materials are reeds, bark, and clay used for roofing, and stones used for supporting pillars, surfacing building plat-forms, and holding down board roofs, with an emphasis upon straight lines, asymmetry, simplicity of design, and understatement, exemplified by pre-Buddhist Shinto shrines, farmhouses, teahouses, and tasteful contemporary interiors.

There is also a distinct preference for natural settings. After Buddhism was introduced to Japan from the continent, it was not long before the symmetry of Chinese temple compounds gave way to mountain temples with an asymmetrical layout.

The wood carving on the bottom of the door, as well as the metalwork which graces an adjacent pillar, both part of a gate at Higashi Honganji Temple in Kyoto, illustrate the attention to detail that is typical of many traditional buildings.

The Japanese love of wood is illustrated in the Zenshitsu Hall at Gangōji Temple in Nara City.

Restraint and Exuberance

There is, however, another side to Japanese culture that is not as well known—the appreciation of exuberant colors and complexity of form in contrast to the restrained tradition with its simplicity and asymmetry. This is exemplified by Chinese style shrines and temples and the mausoleums at Nikkō. Such buildings are characterized by a strong contrast between vermilion posts and white plastered walls, elaborate decorations, curved lines, symmetry, and the imposition of order upon nature. Both the restrained and exuberant traditions are favored at different times and places, depending upon the occasion. For example, ceremonial buildings are designed to impress and thus tend to be more exuberant than residential architecture, where the goal is to provide a tasteful and relaxed atmosphere for the occupants.

Attention to Detail

Regardless of whether circumstances call for restraint or exuberance, Japanese architects, builders, artists, and crafts-people pay a great deal of attention to detail. Even when the overall effect of a building is simple, particularly when it is viewed from a distance, a close-up inspection of the building often reveals numerous details that add interest. Attention to detail applies to both technological and design features. For example, at the technological level, the intricate joinery of a traditional building allowed it to be assembled without nails and to be disassembled periodically for repairs. At the design level, the interlocking eave supports of a Buddhist temple can be quite complicated. The basic pattern of the brackets, however, is repeated over and over again to create a visual rhythm that is well integrated and unified.

The entrance to the 100-year-old Nakamura house in Wajima City, which faces the Japan Sea at the northern end of the Noto Peninsula, has been waterproofed and protected from decay by 20–30 coats of lacquer ( urushi ), a long tradition in an area known for its lacquer guilds and refined lacquerware.

Indigenous and Foreign Influences

Japanese society has been inundated at various times by cultural influences from abroad. In early times, these influences came primarily from Korea and China; more recently, mostly from Europe and the United States. In both cases, the Japanese welcomed foreign influences and attempted to copy what were perceived to be superior cultures. A reaction eventually set in, with the result that foreign influences were assimilated and made part of the Japanese tradition. Rather than being overwhelmed by foreign cultures, the Japanese repeatedly have demonstrated a talent for creatively blending different influences into new styles that express basic Japanese values and aesthetic preferences.

Preserving the Past

Considerable effort is expended upon preserving old buildings. This requires dealing with the advantages and disadvantages of wood, the most popular building material in traditional Japan. Wood is easy to work with, it can be fashioned into a variety of shapes, and it can be used to create structures that are earthquake resistant. The main disadvantage of wood is that it rots and burns. The Japanese have dealt with this disadvantage in a number of ways.

Regular renewal involves the custom, associated with early Shinto shrines, of periodically making a more or less exact copy of a building, after which the original is torn down. The most famous example of regular renewal is Ise Jingū, the most important of the early imperial shrines. Regular renewal made it unnecessary to be overly concerned about decay since even posts planted directly in the ground, a method used in early shrines, usually survive until a building is dismantled and a new one built.

A common practice in traditional Japan was to recycle materials, such as using lumber and tiles from buildings that have collapsed, been partially destroyed by fire or war, or intentionally torn down, in the construction or repair of other buildings. For example, tile was invented in China about 4,000 years ago, but old tiles apparently were not reused. In Japan, however, tiles frequently were salvaged from dismantled buildings and used in the construction of new buildings, often in connection with the frequent moves of the early capitals.

Preservation is the practice of taking steps to save architectural members that are decaying, and reinforcing structures that are in danger of collapse. For example, the five-story pagoda at Honmonji Temple in Tokyo was built in 1608. After 400 years, the pagoda had developed a number of serious problems. Eaves brackets were being crushed from the weight of the roof and the bottom portion of many of the posts on the first level were rotten. Normally all of these parts would be replaced. Because of the fear that the building would lose its cultural value if this were done, however, the damaged parts were injected with carbon fiber. In this way, 70 percent of the damaged parts were preserved.

EXAMPLES OF REMODELING

The Lecture Hall at Tōshōdaiji Temple in Nara underwent a move and was successively remodeled.

A model of the eighth- century Higashi Chōshūden (government workers’ building), at the Heijōkō Palace. The model is located at the Heijō Palace Site Museum in Nara.

A model of Higashi Chōshūden after it was moved to Tōshōdaiji Temple in the eighth century and remodeled as the Lecture Hall. The model is located at the Heijō Palace Site Museum in Nara.

The Lecture Hall as it appears today.

Pagodas are the East Asian version of the Indian stupa, where sacred relics are kept. Most wooden pagodas in Japan are either three or five stories. This pagoda at Hatsukaishi in Hiroshima Prefecture is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

In contrast to preservation, remodeling involves modifying a structure to bring it into line with contemporary styles or to enable it to meet the requirements of a revised function. One of the most interesting examples of remodeling is the Higashi Chōshūden, a building constructed in the early eighth century (Nara Period) for government workers at the Heijōkyō Palace. The building was remodeled as a temple around 760 when it was moved to become the Lecture Hall of Tōshōdaiji Temple in Nara. In the process of remodeling, the slope of the roof was increased and its shape was altered. In addition, the bays between the posts were filled in with walls, doors, and windows to make it resemble other temples from that period. The Lecture Hall was remodeled again in the thirteenth century, giving its current appearance.

The Main Hall and Meditation Hall at Gangōji Temple. These beautiful multicolored tiles, made by Korean craftsmen in the Asuka Period, are the oldest tiles in Japan. The more recent tiles used on the adjacent roof slope to the right are more uniform in color.

This close-up of a post at Hōryūji Temple, near Nara, demonstrates one method of preservation: cutting out a rotted piece of wood and replacing it with a plug made from the same kind of material.

Reconstruction of the Main Hall at Yakushiji Temple in Nara was completed in 1976, after being destroyed centuries earlier, on the basis of archaeological evidence, a Heian Period document, and a surviving pagoda on the grounds.

In restoration, those parts of a structure that have been damaged by natural forces, such as fire, or that have decayed over time and cannot be saved, are replaced. To continue the story of Tōshōdaiji Temple related above, when it was decided in the year 2000 that the Main Hall had to undergo a major restoration, a one-tenth scale model was constructed and exact measurements were taken of every part of the building. The hall’s main frame consists of 20,000 interlocking parts that fit together like a giant jigsaw puzzle, without the use of nails, making it possible to take the building apart without serious damage. Each piece of wood that is being removed is given a tag indicating its original location, and is replicated if necessary.

Frequently, there is nothing left to be preserved, remodeled, or restored. Reconstruction refers to the necessity of rebuilding a structure that no longer exists, or replacing parts of a structure that have been lost. For example, in 1967 Yakushiji Temple in Nara embarked upon a large-scale program of reconstructing the grandeur of its original Nara Period compound.

The first project was to restore the Main Hall that had been destroyed several centuries earlier. There were no extant drawings, but fortunately the temple possessed a Heian Period document that described the original temple complex. On the basis of this and other evidence, such as an archaeological excavation of the original site, the Main Hall was back in its original position in 1976, after nine years of intensive effort.

The giant vermilion torii gate at Itsukushima Shrine on the island of Itsukushima (or Miyajima), a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The gate appears to float when the tide is in.

Status and Function

For many centuries Japan has been a hierarchical society, with considerable emphasis upon status, authority, and power. Differences in architectural styles provide a material expression of these differences in rank. To some extent, the history of Japanese traditional architecture can be viewed in terms of the contrast between the architecture of the élite and the architecture of common people. The former is exemplified by palaces and villas, as well as the temples and shrines patronized by rulers. The latter can be seen in farmhouses and the shop-dwellings of merchants. These élite and commoner traditions are, however, not immutable. They sometimes come together, as in the case of a wealthy farmer who includes a formal Shoin style room, associated with élite dwellings, in his farmhouse. Differences in architectural styles are also associated with differences in function. Thus the styles of a Shinto shrine and Buddhist temple can be quite distinct, despite the fact that they both are religious edifices. Here again, however, the differences should not be overemphasized. Shinto and Buddhist architecture often influenced each other, and at one time the two religions were even combined, creating an eclectic style of religious architecture.

The structure that most concretely indicates status and function is the gate. Gates have practical significance in terms of controlling access to spaces. They also have symbolic significance in that their design, size, and materials indicate something about the wealth and power of their owners or the people who enter. A few examples are described below.

A torii is a gate without doors that marks the entrance to a Shinto shrine precinct. Literally, torii means “where the birds are.” Some scholars have suggested that originally torii may have provided a perch for sacred birds, such as the chickens which played a role in a famous myth about the sun goddess, the ancestress of the imperial line. Regardless of the origins of torii, their main function is to provide a dividing line between the exterior profane world and the interior sacred space where the kami dwell (see pages 28–9). Torii are constructed of wood, stone, or metal and are sometimes painted red. They vary in size from small structures, such as those at the entrance to a neighborhood shrine, to enormous edifices that mark the entry to a major Shinto compound. After the coming of Buddhism, many major shrines adopted a Buddhist style gate, retaining one or more torii to mark the approach.

Early temples in Japan were based on the Chinese custom of enclosing important buildings in a fenced compound with a gate on the south. There are three basic types of temple gates. The first, a single-story gate, can be constructed in different sizes and can vary considerably in terms of the complexity of the decorations. For example, a karamon is a relatively small single-story gate with a curved Chinese style roof and ornate decorations. The second, a rōmon is a two-story gate with a single roof. Thirdly, a nijūmon is a two-story structure with a double roof. Rōmon and nijūmon often have guardian deities in alcoves on both sides of the entrance. Nijūmon originally were used in large Nara Period temple complexes such as Tōdaiji and Yakushiji, but are also typical of later Jōdo and Zen temples and monasteries. The rōmon, used in both temples and many major post-Buddhist shrines, was an adaptation of the nijūmon in which the roof above the first floor was replaced by a simple balcony. The choice of which gate to use depended upon the status and function of the temple.

TEMPLE AND SHRINE GATES

The importance of a temple or shrine is often indicated by the size and complexity of its gate(s), of which there are three basic types: single-story gates, two-story gates with a single roof, and two-story gates with a double roof.

Beyond the torii (Shinto gate) is the Saidaimon (Large West Gate) of Usa Jingū in Kyushu (see pages 50–1). Remodeled around 1592 in the Momoyama Period, this colorful gate is in the kirizuma style (entrance on the long side rather than the gable end). The Chinese style pitched roof (karahafu) is covered with hinoki bark.

Munemon: two posts, one story, e.g. Enshōji Temple, Nara Prefecture.

Shikyakumon : four posts, one story, e.g. Enryakuji Temple, Shiga Prefecture.

Yatsuashimon: eight posts, one story, e.g. Ishiyamadera Temple, Shiga Prefecture.

Rōmon: eight or twelve posts, two stories, one roof, e.g. Tōdaiji Temple, Nara City.

Nijūmon: eight or twelve posts, two stories, two roofs, e.g. Chionin Temple, Kyoto City.

The entrance to the compounds of most major Shinto shrines consists of a Buddhist style gate, e.g. Heian Shrine, Kyoto City.

Ornate Karamon Gate at Nishi Honganji, a Pure Land Temple in Kyoto.

Gate at Hirosaki Castle in northern Japan.

Torii gate at one of the subsidiary shrines at the Gekū compound of Ise Jingū.

A good example of the use of gates to symbolize power is the samurai gate. The third Tokugawa shogun, Iemitsu, required that all daimyo scheduled to receive an official shogunal visit (onari) at their Edo residence must prepare for the occasion by building special facilities, the most important of which was an elaborate gate known as onarimon.

None of these Edo onarimon have survived, but the style is exemplified by the karamon of Nishi Honganji Temple in Kyoto. Originally an imperial messenger gate at Hideyoshi’s Momoyama Castle at Fushimi, the gate was moved to Nishi Honganji when Hideyoshi’s castle was dismantled. It was rebuilt for a visit by Iemitsu in 1632. The emperor followed a similar custom. When he scheduled a visit to a temple or palace, or sent a delegate on his behalf, special facilities, including an imperial gate, had to be prepared.

Shrine, temple, and samurai gates are largely symbolic, in contrast to castle gates, which had great practical significance in terms of defense. Many castles were built in the Momoyama Period (1573–1600) when Japan was in the process of being unified militarily. If an invader managed to cross the moat, he had to pass through the main gate (Ōtemon) and follow a labyrinthine passage that included many gates and dead ends. There are three basic types of castle gates. The first, kōraimon (Korean style gate), has a gabled roof resting on posts. The second, uzumimon (embedded gate), is built directly into the walls of the castle, while the third, yaguramon, is a wooden structure with a hip-and-gable roof resting on a stone wall. Uzumimon gates, basically holes in the wall, could be sealed with dirt and gravel if the enemy attempted to force its way inside, and yaguramon gates could be barred with heavy wooden doors reinforced with iron plates. The main gate played both a defensive and symbolic role in that its size and structure provided an indication of a daimyo’s influence and wealth.

In the Edo Period, commoners were normally forbidden to build residential gates. When average citizens began building gates for their private homes in the Meiji Period, they tended to be quite imposing to balance the large roofs of traditional houses. In recent years, there has been a tendency to construct residences with a more open and friendly design.

Simple wooden gate with a shingled roof and stone path.

Ceremonial gate to the 1894 Satō country house, Oomagari City, Akita Prefecture.

There is no set design for garden gates and they can be made with a variety of materials.

Japanese garden entrance in Toyama Japan with a wooden gate, bamboo fence, and stone path.

Entrance to the garden of Tenjuan subtemple at Nanzenji Temple, Kyoto.

A walled compound with an entrance gate, however, continues to be a popular status marker. Traditional style houses, as well as some modern homes, have small gardens, frequently set apart by an informal fence and entrance gate. The purpose of a residential garden and gate is not so much to impress others as to provide a sense of intimacy and relaxation in a busy world. Whereas formal entry gates are primarily for others, residential gardens and gates are for their owners.