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CHAPTER 1

Development of Unarmed Fighting

The Japanese sword, admired for its artistic value as well as for its practical merits, is often considered an emblem of the samurai’s power and skill. It was venerated by the bushi, or “warrior class,” and the daisho, or set of two swords, was worn as a badge of a samurai’s status. Daisho literally translates as “big-little” and refers to a pair of swords, consisting of one long sword (daito) and a shorter sword (shoto). Either sword was referred to as katana, although the short sword was sometimes called wakazashi. The sword was the “the soul of a samurai,” and no self-respecting bushi would be seen outside his home without his daisho prominently displayed.

During wartime, swordsmanship was essential for survival on the battlefield. However, the possession of suitable side arms was considered a samurai’s responsibility even after the relative peace established by the Tokugawa shogunate. For nearly three centuries (approximately 1600 to 1868), Japan existed as a feudal society under a relatively tranquil rule of the Tokugawa shoguns.

Despite popular literature and the images portrayed in samurai films, bushido—the warrior’s code of ethics and the samurai’s moral precepts — did not allow for indiscriminate use of the sword. As bushido stressed the proper use of the sword, it also detested its misuse. The samurai who drew his sword for unjustifiable reasons or at improper occasions was regarded as ill-mannered and crude.

Samurai and bushido

The samurai were Japan’s warrior class for more than seven centuries. The word comes from the Japanese verb, saburau, meaning “service to a noble.” Samurai were primarily military retainers who attended and guarded clan leaders. The samurai eventually emerged as military aristocrats and then as military rulers.

Medieval samurai were generally illiterate, rural landowners who farmed between battles. As hereditary warriors, though, they were governed by a code of ethics—bushido, meaning the “way of the warrior”—that defined service and conduct appropriate to their status as elite members of Japanese society. During the shogunate of the Tokugawa family, the samurai as a class were transformed into military bureaucrats and were required to master administrative skills as well as military arts. Some developed the necessary skills for bureaucratic service, but many did not.

One method the shogunate used to control the various daimyo (feudal lords) was to impose heavy financial burdens through taxation and other means. Unable to support the high cost of a strong military, the daimyo were no longer able to wage clan wars with their severely reduced armies. Since there was often no more need for their military skills during this time of peace and the daimyo faced mounting expenses, many samurai were forced to become ronin, or unemployed wanderers.

From the turn of the eighteenth century, the Japanese economy surged. For the first time, Japanese merchants became wealthy and powerful, despite their lower-class status in Japanese society. In the new affluent bourgeois culture, poor samurai frequently turned to opening bujutsu (military arts) schools as a way of making a living. Eventually many of these samurai began teaching their martial art skills to the more prosperous townsmen.

As the Japanese economy went through a number of changes during the nineteenth century, there was a great increase in criminal activities. Criminal elements, especially the yakuza or underworld gangs, became very powerful during this period.

Banned from carrying weapons other than short swords or knives due to their status, unarmed fighting techniques often proved to be quite popular with the townsmen. Many townsmen and farmers also studied swordsmanship in the hope of distinguishing themselves and being raised to samurai status.

After the 1868 revolution in Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate was defeated and a constitutional monarchy, such as in England, was born. Many professional martial arts instructors who had served the shogun and the many feudal lords by teaching their warriors lost their positions. Since samurai were now also prohibited from openly carrying swords, unarmed fighting skills were often the only available means of selfdefense or protection.

Forging the blades

Japanese swordsmiths would fast and undergo ritual purification before making a new blade. While working at their anvils, they wore white robes like Shinto priests. By the thirteenth century, Japanese swords were recognized as far superior than those made anywhere else in the world. No one could challenge the quality of the steel by these Japanese swordsrniths.

To hold a sharp edge, steel needed to be hard. However, hard steel is also brittle and could break in battle. Soft steel was more flexible and wouldn’t break as easily, but soft steel would not hold a sharp edge, quickly dulling through use. The Japanese swordsmiths solved this problem by hammering layers of steel of varying hardness together. Then they reheated the metal layers, folded the metal back on itself, and hammered it out thin again and again. After a dozen times, the steel consisted of thousands of paper-thin laminations of hard and soft metal. When it was ground to a sharp edge, the hard metal stood out and resisted dulling, while the soft steel kept the sword from breaking.

Finally, the master swordsmith covered the roughly finished blade with a thick layer of clay, leaving the edge exposed. The blade was then heated until the glowing metal reached the proper shade of color, then it was quickly submerged into cool water. The exposed edge cooled instantly while the rest of the blade, protected by the clay, cooled slowly and remained comparatively soft.

The final result was a flexible sword blade of soft non-brittle metal enclosed in a thin layer of hard steel. The edge, though, consisted of tempered hardened steel which would hold its razor sharpness despite repeated use.

The spirit of the sword

The development of the samurai sword is based in Japanese mythology. According to legend, the Sun Goddess Amaterasu Omikami gave the first sword to her grandson, Ninigi-no Mikoto, to use as he ruled over Japan. The early warriors thought their swords had astonishing power and even their own individual personalities. There are many stories about the spiritual powers and sharpness of exceptional blades. One legend is about the products of two famous swordsmiths, Muramasa and Masume. Two warlords, who each owned a different craftsman’s sword, often argued about who was the most skilled swordsmith. Finally they decided on a test.

The first held his blade, an excellent katana made by Muramasa, in a swift running stream. A dead leaf drifted against the edge of the sword and was cut cleanly in half. The other put his sword made by Masume in the stream. Instead of being cut, though, the floating leaves passed on either side. They decided that the second blade was superior to the one made by Muramasa because Masume had endowed his blade with a spirit which caused the leaves to avoid its edge.

This legend speaks volumes in explaining the true nature of Japanese morals and ethics. The skill to create a blade so sharp that it was capable of cutting through even a leaf floating in the stream was obviously highly regarded. However, the blade endowed with a spirit to avoid cutting when unnecessary was even more valued.

It is clear that the Japanese admired those who avoided the use of the sword if other means were available to resolve their problems. Admiration for the spiritual and moral values of humanity and compassion despite the harsh times and lifestyles are found in many of the stories and records concerning everyday Japanese life during the feudal period.

Unarmed fighting styles

Various techniques of unarmed fighting have developed in almost all cultures, but these skills received special attention in Japan. The origins of jujutsu, or unarmed fighting techniques, can be traced back to Japan’s mythological age. The Japanese gods, Kashima and Kadori, were said to have first used jujutsu techniques to punish the lawless inhabitants of the eastern provinces.

Early traces of the Japanese appreciation for unarmed fighting traditions can be found nearly two thousand years ago when, according to written records, Emperor Suinin ordered two men, Nomi-no-Sukune and Taima-no-Kuehaya, to a wrestling contest. After a lengthy match apparently consisting mainly of kicking, Nomi-no-Sukune gained the advantage over Taima-no-Kuehaya, knocking his opponent to the ground and trampling him to death.

In the years preceding the Tokugawa Era, Japan was the scene of many lengthy civil wars and continuous strife. It was during this period that kumiuchi, a form of wrestling while both participants are wearing armor, originated for the battlefield. Eventually, the art of kumiuchi advanced to the point that it was not unusual for a weaker opponent to gain victory over a stronger foe, thus encouraging many aspiring warriors to train themselves in this unarmed fighting style.

Various schools of unarmed fighting sprang up in Japan during the feudal era. The various unarmed fighting styles were known by many different names such as jujutsu, taijutsu, yawara, wajutsu, toride, kogusoku, kempo, hakuda, kumiuchi, shuhaku, judo, and many others, each slightly different applications of nearly identical principles.

These styles quickly became so intermingled with each other that is virtually impossible to distinguish these styles from one another now. Of these, though, the purpose of toride and kogusoku were primarily to restrain and arrest persons, while the intent of jujutsu and judo was to throw or kill one’s opponent and kempo and hakuda utilized kicks or strikes. In general, all of these styles may be described as unarmed fighting with an armed or an unarmed opponent or the use of a small weapon to overcome an enemy armed with a larger weapon.

Unarmed fighting styles branched into many different schools. Many of these have little if any reliable records, even regarding their founders, thus making it very difficult to identify the origins. Some accounts credit the development of unarmed fighting styles to techniques imported from China. Based on reliable records, though, other scholars believe that the development of unarmed fighting styles is indigenous to Japan and not based on foreign influences. Whatever side of the debate, the following are some descriptions of just a few of the more well-known schools which started during this period.

Takenouchi-ryu

Takenouchi-ryu was founded by Takenouchi Hisamori, a native of Haga village in the province of Mimasaka. During a period of meditation at Sannomiya Shrine in June 1532, he fell asleep after an intensive solitary training session. According to the tradition, a yamabushi, a member of a religious class which frequently traveled throughout Japan, appeared and taught several arresting techniques to Takenouchi. The yamabushi also convinced him of the advantages of small arms over larger weapons. Takenouchi named this style kogusoku, and the art still exists today after many generations of successors.

Kito-ryu

Kito-ryu was founded by Terada Kanyemon, a retainer of Kyogoku Tango-no-Kami. He first learned unarmed fighting skills from Terada Heizayemon, who was a teacher of Fukuno-ryu, a school originated by Fukuno Shichiroyemon. (Fukuno Shichiroyemon, along with Miura Yojiyemon and Isogai Jirozayemon, initially studied kempo under Chin Gempin, a Chinese who traveled to Kokushoji Temple at Azabu in Edo during the latter part of the seventeenth century. The three ronin each founded their own jujutsu schools.) After mastering jujutsu skills, Terada Kanyemon founded his own school which he called Kito-ryu. Throwing skills are very prominent in this style, and the katas of Kito-ryu are especially noted for their characteristic throwing techniques.

Shibukawa-ryu

The founder of Shibukawa-ryu, Shibukawa Bangoro trained in unarmed fighting skills under Sekiguchi Hachirozaemon, the son of Sekiguchi Jushin. After developing great proficiency, he opened his own school in Edo.

Yoshin-ryu

There are two different accounts of the Yoshin-ryu source. The first lists the founder as Miura Yoshin, a physician in Nagasaki. Convinced that physical illness was the result of an imbalance between the use of mind and body, he developed a number of arresting techniques utilizing his principles for resolving this imbalance. Two of his first followers established their own schools after his death which were respectively called Miura-ryu and Yoshin-ryu after the family and given names of the originator.

An second account claims Akiyama Shirobei Yoshitoki, also a physician from Nagasaki, to be the founder. While studying medicine in China, he also learned several te, or “fighting tricks,” as well as many different resuscitation techniques (kappo). Upon his return to Japan, Akiyama began teaching his fighting style, but was dissatisfied with the limited number of techniques. Determined to improve his fighting proficiency and develop a wider range of techniques, he retired to the Temmangu temple at Tsukushi for several months to meditate and seek inspiration.

It was a harsh winter, and Akiyama watched as the snow fell on the temple grounds. He noticed the sturdy branches of the surrounding trees often broke and were crushed under the weight of accumulated snow. However, the weaker willow-tree was able to escape this fate due to the suppleness of its branches. The flexible branches bent and gave way as the weight increased, thus allowing them to throw off the snow and spring back after releasing their burden. Akiyama was so impressed by this, he based his new fighting techniques on this concept, giving his sect the narre Yoshin-ryu, which means “willow-heart school.”

Kushin-ryu

Kushin-ryu was founded by Inouye Nagakatsu. However, his grandson, Inouye Nagayasu (generally known as Gumbei), was so adept in jujutsu that he is often credited as being the originator. This style closely resembles the Kito-ryu style. It is stated that Inouye Nagayasu trained for some time under Takino, a former student of Kito-ryu. Headquartered in Edo, Kushin-ryu became very popular.

Tenjin-shinyo-ryu

Tenjin-shinyo-ryu was founded by Iso Matayemon, a retainer of the Kii clan. A native of the Matsuzaka in Ise province, he studied under Hitosuyanagi Oribe, a master of Yoshin-ryu. Following the death of his teacher, he later studied under Homma Joyemon, an adept in Shin-no-Shinto-ryu. Convinced from his actual fighting experiences that victory required the skillful application of atemi, the art of striking the vital and vulnerable points of an opponent’s body, Iso Matayemon emphasized atemi in the founding of his own style. He called his new style Tenjin-shinyo-ryu, deriving the name partially from both Yoshin-ryu and Shin-no-Shinto-ryu.

Shinto Muso-ryu

Although primarily concerned with the arts of the sword and staff, Shinto Muso-ryu has also incorporated many other auxiliary arts since its inception. Shinto Muso-ryu was founded by Muso Gonnosuke Katsuyoshi during the early part of the Tokugawa Period. The third successor of the Shinto Muso-ryu, Matsuzaki Kinueumon Tsunekatsu added Ittatsu-ryu hojo-jutsu (rope binding) and Ikkaku-ryu jutte-jutsu (truncheon art) to the Shinto Muso-ryu curriculum.

In more recent years, the Japanese police modified many of the Ikkaku-ryu jutte-jutsu techniques for their keibo-jutsu (police baton art) training. Although the basic techniques are similar, the targets and applications of keibo-jutsu techniques have been modified slightly to enable police officers to more effectively control a suspect with minimum injury, rather than to put the individual down at any cost.

Japanese feudal social structure

Feudal Japan was theoretically ruled by the emperor, considered a direct descendant of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu Ornikami. An extensive hereditary aristocracy of nobles formed the Imperial Court, although the emperor and his nobles have held no real governing power for many centuries. Their position was more symbolic. Their principal function was to conduct and take part in various religious rituals.

The real rulers were the military class, sometimes referred to as bushi. The various clans were led by daimyo and ruled by the shogun. The daimyo held total power over their individual domains, answering only to the shogunate. Among the daimyo, there were various ranks, mostly related to whether their clan had directly supported Tokugawa Ieyasu and his forces during his struggle to unite Japan. Within each domain, the individual daimyo ruled over a varying number of direct retainers, which often included a very complicated hierarchy within their own samurai ranks resulting in various status levels. The Tokugawa clan’s own direct retainers, called hatamoto or literally “banner men,” also held many significant positions within the shogunate, many equal in rank to the daimyo.

Below the warrior or bushi class, were the farmers. The largest group in Japan, the peasants were considered second in class only to the samurai because they provided the crops and livestock necessary to feed the country’s population.

Following the farmers, craftsmen and artisans formed the third tier of the feudal Japanese caste system. They were held in nominal favor since they produced the tools and utensils needed by the farmers and the weapons and associated decorations required by the bushi.

The fourth tier consisted of merchants, who were looked down upon because they essentially created nothing while basically living off the produce of others. Although they were considered fairly low on the social structure, the merchant class owned most of the actual property by the nineteenth century. Many became bankers, financing not only other merchant ventures, but also lending money to the members of the samurai class. As the richest members of the society, they frequently bought titles or married into samurai families to improve their status.

Members of the samurai class had for many years considered financial issues as beneath their dignity and even disdained the handling of money. This extended to having their servants actually pay for all necessities to avoid contact with coins. Physically touching money was considered unclean, and most samurai would wrap their coins in paper before presenting them for payment to another.

As a result, many samurai were not very adept at dealing with fiscal issues and often found themselves in serious financial straits. Ironically, many of their rights and power, including the carrying of weapons, were often circumscribed by the bankers and money lenders from the merchant class.

The lowest class consisted of the eta, or “outcasts” which were basically considered non-humans. Even within this group existed a varied ranking system, from those who were temporarily classed as outcasts due to their circumstances, such as convicted petty criminals, to those who were hereditary and permanent pariahs in the rigid feudal Japanese social order.

Vendettas and reprisals

Due to their relatively high status within the complicated caste system, the samurai held nearly total power over those below them. According to Japanese law during the feudal period, members of the samurai class generally had the right to cut down anyone of lower station if offended in any manner. While they may not have faced legal entanglements, the reality was that this extreme act could cause serious repercussions if their right was used indiscriminately.

Killing another samurai, even a much lower ranking bushi, could easily spark a clan war, resulting in many members of both houses being killed. Such action would endanger any other members of the samurai’s clan. No self-respecting samurai would dare put his fellow clan members in such a dangerous position without considering the possible consequences. Slaying any individual, regardless of class, might also initiate a vendetta by other members of the victim’s family, many of which were known to last centuries, being passed from generation to generation. Japanese during this period considered revenge a very important legal right.

Forty-seven ronin

It was such an impetuous and foolhardy act that resulted in one of the most famous of Japanese legends. The true story of the forty-seven ronin is probably the best-known story of the valor and ideals of Japan’s samurai. In 1701, Lord Asano Nagamori, a brash young daimyo from Ako, was ordered to commit seppuku (ritual suicide) and his clan abolished, thus setting the stage for the bloodiest vendetta in Japan’s history known as the forty-seven ronin incident. Asano’s offense was drawing his short sword and attacking the shogun’s chief of protocol, Kira Yoshinaka, during preparations for an official reception of an imperial envoy from Kyoto.

Various reasons are given for the shogun’s harsh sentencing of Lord Asano. Most historians agree that it was for drawing his short sword and wounding Yoshinaka. In one account, though, after the initial attack failed, Lord Asano threw his wakazashi at the chief of protocol, damaging a lacquered screen. Ultimately, though, it was Lord Asano’s obvious disregard for prohibitions against drawing one’s sword within the palace grounds that sealed his fate.