Читать книгу Staging the Ottoman Turk - Esin Akalın - Страница 10

The eighteenth century marked the culmination of a great transformation in Europe, a revolution in scientific ideas, in philosophical and social thought, brought on by relativism born of geographic discovery and a shift in the perception of the universe due to the progression from Copernicus to Newton. Furthermore, the West had also witnessed the Ottoman failure in two wars against the Russian and Austrian Empires, which were concluded with the treaties of Karlowitz (1699) and Pasarowitz (1718). Since these two wars had led to a shift in the balance of power between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, the Ottomans, in order to maintain their territorial boundaries in the West, had begun to inquire into European military technology. Furthermore, in order to participate in Western diplomacy, they began to dispatch embassies to Europe. As Ambassador Yirmi Sekiz Celebi Mehmet Efendi was sent to France (1721) to inform the French that the "Ottoman State had authorized them to repair the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem" (Gocek 4), this was the "first window opening to the West" (Gocek 5) through France, the cultural centre of Europe and a potential ally to the Ottomans.

In this respect, Ottoman relations with Europe are characterized by two events, each representing a historical turning point for the Empire: the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699), establishing Europe's military superiority over the Turks and Sultan Selim III's Tri-Partite Defensive Alliance (1799) with Britain and Russia confirming the Ottoman defensive posture towards the West. The progression of events between 1699 and 1799 reveals that changes were made within the Ottoman Empire with respect to relations with Europe and the pattern of affairs in their diplomacy. Given Europe's military ascendancy which was confirmed by the Austrians at Passarowitz (1718), the Russians at Küçük Kaynarca (1744) and in Crimea (1783), and by the French in Egypt (1789), the Ottoman Empire ultimately became dependent on the European balance of power. According to Naff:

in the eighteenth century these determinants were located increasingly beyond the confines of Europe, in the Western hemisphere and Indian subcontinent where the rivalry between England and France unleashed external political and economic forces well beyond the ken or control of the Sublime Porte (Naff 90).

In the eighteenth century, what drastically tipped this balance of power was the difference in the international systems of the state-centred European countries and the Ottoman Empire. In the preceding two centuries, with the rise of strong centralized monarchies in Europe, several Western nations had achieved overseas exploration, colonization and commercial expansion. Furthermore, through the Reformation, by developing a secular, rational outlook, which promoted scientific discoveries, Europe underwent some major technological and industrial revolutions, which led to a more flexible economic system. As for the Ottoman system, it was imperial and Islamic, and foreign relations were inspired by religious precepts and often shaped and influenced by religious authorities. Although these differences complicated