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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 A basic experiment in chromatography. (a) The necessary ingredien...Figure 1.2 The principle of analysis by chromatography. The chromatogram, th...Figure 1.3 Chromatographic elution curve. Example of a graph of Eq. (1.1).Figure 1.4 Characteristics of an ideal chromatographic peak. Meaning of the ...Figure 1.5 Distribution isotherms. (a) The ideal situation corresponding to ...Figure 1.6 Dispersion of a solute in a column. Left, a graph corresponding t...Figure 1.7 Retention factors and separation factor (or selectivity factor) b...Figure 1.8 Resolution factor. A simulation of chromatographic peaks by juxta...Figure 1.9 Effect of column length on the resolution. Chromatograms obtained...Figure 1.10 Van Deemter curve in gas chromatography with the domains of para...Figure 1.11 The chromatographer’s compromise triangle between resolution, sp...Figure 1.12 Analysis by the external standard method. The precision of this ...Figure 1.13 Method of analysis by internal standard.Figure 1.14 Analysis by internal normalization method.

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Operational diagram of a gas chromatograph and practical uses. a,...Figure 2.2 Efficiency as a function of the nature and linear velocity of the...Figure 2.3 Microsyringe for GC and principle of an injection loop installed ...Figure 2.4 Direct vaporization injector used for packed columns. The typical...Figure 2.5 Injectors. Above left, injection chamber with splitter (vent 2 re...Figure 2.6 PTV injector, with programmable temperature and cold on‐column in...Figure 2.7 Capillary columns. Representation of a 50 m long commercial capil...Figure 2.8 Polarity scale of stationary phases in GC and summary of the thre...Figure 2.9 Example of a separation with a chiral phase which contains grafte...Figure 2.10 Chiral stationary phase in GC. Among the three chiral vectors en...Figure 2.11 Gas analyses. Left, one of the earliest ever chromatograms, obta...Figure 2.12 FID detector (a) and NPD detector (b). The make‐up gas (or filli...Figure 2.13 Thermal conductivity detector. Left, layout demonstrating the du...Figure 2.14 (a) Electron capture detector (ECD) and (b) photo‐ionization det...Figure 2.15 Three detectors connected in series. At the outlet of a capillar...Figure 2.16 ‘Ultra‐fast’ chromatogram. Left, separation of several aromatic ...Figure 2.17 Kovats straight line graph. Left, isothermal chromatogram for a ...Figure 2.18 Kovats retention index (I = 100n_x) on a column in isothermal mod...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Diagram of a modular HPLC instrument. The vertical assembly of th...Figure 3.2 Simplified diagram of a dual‐headed reciprocating pump. From the ...Figure 3.3 Example of a high‐pressure gradient system. The pumps are called ...Figure 3.4 Injection valve for HPLC and an assortment of loops. Left, rear v...Figure 3.5 Injection with a loop. (a) Loading of the loop. In this step, the...Figure 3.6 Standard column and guard column for HPLC. View of the ZORBAX^®...Figure 3.7 Silica gels for HPLC. Solid‐core phases lead to notable improveme...Figure 3.8 Nature of the stationary phase and efficiency. HETP decreases wit...Figure 3.9 The phenomena of adsorption and partition. Adsorption is an inter...Figure 3.10 Evolution of liquid chromatography performance. The four Van Dee...Figure 3.11 Formation of organosilanes grafted at the interface of silica ge...Figure 3.12 Examples of chiral stationary phases used in HPLC. Separation of...Figure 3.13 Strength of solvents used as mobile phases. By mixing several so...Figure 3.14 Relative polarities of several organic compound families along w...Figure 3.15 The separation of sugars on an amine phase. The order of elution...Figure 3.16 Ion pairing effects on a separation with an RP‐18 type column. A...Figure 3.17 Separation on the principle of hydrophobic interaction. The chro...Figure 3.18 Separation using the hydrophilic interaction principle (HILIC). ...Figure 3.19 Photometric detection. Principle of a photometric detector along...Figure 3.20 Chromatograms of a sample containing two compounds A and B whose...Figure 3.21 The diode array detector. Unlike the monochromatic detector, the...Figure 3.22 Three‐dimensional representation, i = f(t, λ), of a chromatograp...Figure 3.23 Fluorometric detector. 1) Diagram of a fluorometric detector. 2)...Figure 3.24 Diagram of a differential refractive index detector. Optical pat...Figure 3.25 Evaporative light scattering detector. In three successive stage...Figure 3.26 Polarimeter detection. Diagram representing the main components ...Figure 3.27 Chromatograms of a separation. The mobile phase is a binary wate...Figure 3.28 Effect of column temperature on a separation. Example showing th...Figure 3.29 Fast chromatography. This example shows that the choice of colum...Figure 3.30 Comparison of flow rates in columns with different internal diam...Figure 3.31 Columns for U‐HPLC. Nanochromatography. Capillary columns, 75 μm...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Diagram of an ion‐exchange chromatograph. The classic modular arc...Figure 4.2 Diagram showing the progression of an anion A⁻ in contact w...Figure 4.3 Separation of several organic acids with a cationic column.Figure 4.4 Stationary phases in IC. Cross‐section of a spherical particle of...Figure 4.5 Anionic phases obtained by solid‐core silica grafting. Nonporous ...Figure 4.6 Phases resulting from polysaccharides. Examples of commercial res...Figure 4.7 Ion chromatograph containing a hydroxide ion (OH⁻) generato...Figure 4.8 Chromatogram resulting in the water peak (1 min) and the system p...Figure 4.9 Chemical suppressor for a cation exchange column. In this example...Figure 4.10 Membrane and electrochemically regenerated suppressors. There ar...Figure 4.11 Ion‐exclusion chromatography. Ions, subject to Donnan exclusion,...Figure 4.12 Analysis of amino acids. Exchange reaction on the column and der...Figure 4.13 Separation of seven anions in less than two minutes.

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Automatic sample applicator for TLC and a system to ‘read’ the pl...Figure 5.2 Vertical developing chamber and TLC plate. Left: available in a v...Figure 5.3 Scanning of a TLC plate. The absorbance of a given TLC plate, dep...Figure 5.4 Two‐dimensional TLC. Using two different solvents performed in tw...Figure 5.5 Thin‐layer chromatography/mass spectrometry (TLC/MS). The TLC pla...Figure 5.6 TLC plate micrographics and separation study of four parabens on ...Figure 5.7 Separation of TLC catecholamines in TLC with the ion‐pairing tech...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Phase diagram carbon dioxide. There exists for each pure substanc...Figure 6.2 Dipole moments and Snyder’s empirical scale for several modifiers...Figure 6.3 Diagram of an SFC set‐up using a packed HPLC column. Carbon dioxi...Figure 6.4 Comparison between HPLC and SFC. Both experimental curves have be...Figure 6.5 Effect of pressure in SFC. These two chromatograms [(a) ‐ high pr...Figure 6.6 Example of separation on a chiral column. A blend of two cis/tran...Figure 6.7 Comparison of SFC and HPLC variants. The SFC domain covers the fu...Figure P6.1

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Migration across a stationary phase gel. A chromatogram displayin...Figure 7.2 Comparison of gel permeation and gel filtration. By using a small...Figure 7.3 Comparison of three gel permeation phases.Figure 7.4 Linear calibration curve of a gel permeation column. The column c...Figure 7.5 Universal calibration curve. Illustration of the hydrodynamic rad...Figure 7.6 Viscometric detection. Diagram of a viscometric detector. Four ca...Figure 7.7 90° scattering by using a protein as an example. The combination ...Figure 7.8 Measurement cell of a multi‐angle light scattering (MALS) detecto...Figure 7.9 Migration of a mixture of two macromolecules based on the field f...Figure P7.1

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Zone electrophoresis: principle of a set‐up. (a): each compartmen...Figure 8.2 Capillary electrophoresis. The electrolyte is an aqueous ionic so...Figure 8.3 Movement of analytes in the capillary. Influence of the net charg...Figure 8.4 Electroosmotic flow in a capillary filled with an electrolyte. To...Figure 8.5 An electropherogram of an anion test mixture. Separation of a mix...Figure 8.6 Separation of the principal organic acids in white wine by indire...Figure 8.7 A model of the interface between HPCE and MS. The solutions diffe...Figure 8.8 Separation of neutral analytes by using a surfactant (MEKC techni...Figure 8.9 Comparison of the progression of the mobile phase in HPCE and in ...Figure 8.10 Separation of enantiomers. Comparative study between HPCE and U‐...Figure 8.11 Separation of aromatic hydrocarbons by electrochromatography and...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Three different types of UV/Vis spectra. Spectra of benzene (a) i...Figure 9.2 Energy diagram of a molecule and electronic transitions. Left: th...Figure 9.3 Transitions encountered most frequently in organic compounds. Amo...Figure 9.4 n → σ* transition of aniline (a primary amine). This transition c...Figure 9.5 Donor/acceptor interaction. The absorption of the complex formed,...Figure 9.6 Values of λ_max for a family of E‐disubstituted conjugated po...Figure 9.7 Spectra of benzophenone in cyclohexane (‐ ‐ ‐) and in ethanol (−)...Figure 9.8 The effect of pH upon a solution of phenolphthalein. This compoun...Figure 9.9 The two single‐beam spectrometers configurations.Figure 9.10 Emission curves of a Quartz Tungsten‐Halogen (QTH) lamp and a de...Figure 9.11 Monochromator gratings. (a) Ebert assembly incorporating a conca...Figure 9.12 Response curves of several detectors used in the 200–3,000 nm ra...Figure 9.13 Simplified diagram of the optical path of a single‐beam, sequent...Figure 9.14 Single‐beam spectrometer with detection by CCD array. Module lay...Figure 9.15 Optical path from the exit of the monochromator to the detector ...Figure 9.16 Cells and main sampling devices. a) Standard cuvette and circula...Figure 9.17 Absorption of light by a homogeneous material and representation...Figure 9.18 Illustration of the Beer–Lambert law. Spectra of aqueous solutio...Figure 9.19 Additive nature of absorbances. For all wavelengths, the absorba...Figure 9.20 Isobestic point. Alkaline hydrolysis of methyl salicylate at 25°...Figure 9.21 Illustration of two frequently encountered situations. A compoun...Figure 9.22 Calibration curve. If a single reference solution is prepared, t...Figure 9.23 Confirmatory analysis. (a) Spectrum of a mixture (X + Y) and spe...Figure 9.24 Multicomponent analysis. Spectra of a 1 × 10⁻⁴ M solution ...Figure 9.25 Deconvolution of the spectrum of a five‐compound mixture. From t...Figure 9.26 Illustration of the concepts behind the Morton–Stubbs calculatio...Figure 9.27 Curves representing the average of each of the errors (1 to 3) i...Figure 9.28 Derivative curves for two compounds. We can note the presence of...Figure 9.29 Effect of light scattering on a UV spectrum and on its first der...Figure 9.30 Visual colorimetry. Visual comparator (Merck) with two tubes: on...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Mechanical interpretation of the interaction between a light wav...Figure 10.2 Mid‐IR spectrum of a polystyrene film. The typical representatio...Figure 10.3 Rotational/vibrational levels of a diatomic molecule and corresp...Figure 10.4 A diatomic molecule represented in the form of a harmonic oscill...Figure 10.5 Diagram of the vibrational energy levels of a bond. The transiti...Figure 10.6 Molecular vibrations of CH₂. Characteristic stretching and bendi...Figure 10.7 Configurations of spectrometers and analysers in the infrared re...Figure 10.8 The optical assembly of a Fourier transform apparatus. (a) 90° M...Figure 10.9 Sequence for obtaining a pseudo‐double‐beam spectrum with a Four...Figure 10.10 Portable FTIR analyser. Small size apparatus allowing the study...Figure 10.11 Nondispersive gas analyser. The cell containing the gas to be q...Figure 10.12 Some sources used in the near and mid‐infrared region. Operatin...Figure 10.13 Detectors in the infrared region. The operating principles of p...Figure 10.14 Cells in the mid‐IR region. View of the direct optical pathway ...Figure 10.15 Materials and solvents in the MIR region. The main crystals or ...Figure 10.16 Three types of reflections used in the MIR region. (a) Specular...Figure 10.17 Critical angle and evanescent wave. Comparison of the path, whe...Figure 10.18 Reflection spectra. (a) Spectra from a sample of Plexiglas obta...Figure 10.19 Optical path of an IR microscope. The sample can be examined in...Figure 10.20 Measurement of cell thickness by the method of interference fri...Figure 10.21 Correction of the absorption baseline. If we assume, for the gi...Figure 10.22 Harmonic and combination bands of several organic compound bond...Figure 10.23 Effect of particle size distribution on the spectrum of flour a...Figure 10.24 Integrating sphere and commercial instruments for NIRS. Left: D...Figure 10.25 Portable NIR spectrometer. Left: NIR spectrometer for the analy...Figure 10.26 Energy diagram and Raman scattering. The use of an energy diagr...Figure 10.27 Raman spectrum. (a) The three main Stokes and anti‐Stokes lines...Figure 10.28 Raman spectrum of a cross‐linked polystyrene film. Comparison w...Figure 10.29 Miniaturized Raman spectrometer. A field device using an excita...Figure P10.1

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Representation, as an energy diagram, of the absorption of a pho...Figure 11.2 Jablonski diagram. According to quantum theory, fluorescence res...Figure 11.3 Representation on the same graph of the absorbance and fluoresce...Figure 11.4 Fluorescing aromatic compounds. The compound names are followed ...Figure 11.5 Fluorescence intensity. Depending on the site in the solution wh...Figure 11.6 Fluorescence intensity and concentration. Modelling of Eq. (11.7...Figure 11.7 The various components of a fluorescence spectrum. The position ...Figure 11.8 Block diagram of a spectrofluorometer with a xenon arc lamp. The...Figure 11.9 Diagram of the optical path of a fluorescence microplate reader....Figure 11.10 Diagram of a Shimadzu F‐4500 spectrofluorometer. A fraction of ...Figure 11.11 Fluorescence spectra. Above, emission–excitation matrix of a mi...Figure 11.12 Representation of fluorescence decay and the principle of measu...Figure 11.13 Protein assay by chemifluorescence in biochemistry. The diagram...Figure 11.14 Comparison of UV and fluorescence detection following a chromat...Figure 11.15 Examples of chemiluminescence reactions. The nature of the reac...Figure 11.16 Nitrogen analyser using chemiluminescence. Stoichiometric react...Figure 11.17 Chemiluminescence reactions using ozone. The transformation of ...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 X‐ray fluorescence, Auger emission, and Compton scattering. X‐ra...Figure 12.2 Simplified diagram of the source of some fluorescence transition...Figure 12.3 X‐ray generators. (a) Diagram of a classic X‐ray tube with water...Figure 12.4 Radioactive source ⁵⁵Fe. Emission spectrum obtained by placing a...Figure 12.5 Pear‐shaped interaction of the electron beam with the material. ...Figure 12.6 Various detectors used in X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry. (a) P...Figure 12.7 The two acquisition modes of X‐ray spectra. The energy detection...Figure 12.8 Energy‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence spectrometer. Arrangement o...Figure 12.9 Reflecting crystals used in goniometers of wavelength‐dispersive...Figure 12.10 Crystal‐based sequential spectrometers. Above, a diagram inspir...Figure 12.11 X‐ray densitometry –percentage transmission for two films made ...Figure 12.12 ED‐XRF portable field apparatus. (a) Spectometer SPECTRO‐X Sort...Figure 12.13 Spectrum of a surface sample from Mars, obtained by the Mars Ro...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Kirchhoff ’s experiment on the reversal of lines. The convention...Figure 13.2 Some energy levels of the sodium atom. Simplified representation...Figure 13.3 Summary of the possible evolution of an aerosol solution in a fl...Figure 13.4 Examples of calibration graphs in AAS. Left, a straight calibrat...Figure 13.5 The various components of a single‐beam atomic absorption appara...Figure 13.6 Two types of sources in AAS. The cathode is a hollow cylinder wh...Figure 13.7 Comparison of transmitted intensities in AAS with a continuum li...Figure 13.8 Burner and thermoelectric atomization system. (a), (b) Graphite ...Figure 13.9 Diagram of a hydride reactor. Reserved for certain elements, thi...Figure 13.10 Matrix modification. Ammonium nitrate or EDTA increases the vol...Figure 13.11 Diagram of an AA spectrometer showing background correction wit...Figure 13.12 Normal Zeeman effect. Pictorial explanation of the constant inv...Figure 13.13 Correction using a pulsed lamp. Profiles of an emission line in...Figure 13.14 Elements measured by AAS.

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Basic design of an atomic emission spectrometer.Figure 14.2 Energy transitions in atomic emission. For every atom, there are...Figure 14.3 Plasma torch obtained by inductive coupling. Plasma torch repres...Figure 14.4 Nebulizers. Models: cross‐path (1), concentric (2) and parallel ...Figure 14.5 Laser and glow discharge excitation instruments. (a) By laser (L...Figure 14.6 Atomic spectrometry using plasma induced by laser. Two models of...Figure 14.7 Three fundamental causes of atomic line broadening. Representati...Figure 14.8 Optical diagram of an instrument with a concave grating and a po...Figure 14.9 Principle of dispersion in the focal plane of an assembly combin...Figure 14.10 Optical diagram for a spectrophotometer with an echelle grating...Figure 14.11 Linear dispersion and reciprocal linear dispersion (inverse dis...Figure 14.12 Analysis of a sample of Mars soil by atomic emission after lase...Figure 14.13 Flame photometry. Basic diagram of a flame photometer and list ...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Conventional representation of the ¹H NMR spectrum of an organic...Figure 15.2 Effect of a magnetic field upon a nucleus of spin number ½ for a...Figure 15.3 Representation of the energy differences for a nucleus with a sp...Figure 15.4 Precession and magnetization. (a) A snapshot illustrating the pr...Figure 15.5 NMR spectrum of a water sample placed in a borosilicate glass co...Figure 15.6 Representation of an electromagnetic wave and its effect on a nu...Figure 15.7 Deviation of the magnetization vector and return to equilibri...Figure 15.8 FID signal of fluoroacetone (¹³C) obtained with a pulsed wave ap...Figure 15.9 CW‐NMR apparatus. Arrangement of the different coils around the ...Figure 15.10 The two processes of nuclear relaxation. Evolution of spin–spin...Figure 15.11 Chemical shifts of certain compounds in proton NMR. Shielding e...Figure 15.12 Effects of resonance for carbonyl compounds in ¹³C NMR. If the ...Figure 15.13 Anisotropic effects and induced local fields. The presence of π...Figure 15.14 Heteronuclear spin‐spin coupling of hydrogen fluoride.Figure 15.15 Coupling diagram for the HF molecule in ¹H NMR. Hypothetical co...Figure 15.16 Representation of the different spin states for the five proton...Figure 15.17 Spectrum of the four aromatic protons of aspirin. The figure ab...Figure 15.18 Characteristics defining an AB system. (a–d) Gradual modificati...Figure 15.19 Nomenclature of NMR spectra. The ¹H spectrum of 3‐chloro‐4‐meth...Figure 15.20 Spin decoupling experiment on butanone. Modification of the ¹H ...Figure 15.21 DEPT sequence on 2‐carene. This example illustrates what these ...Figure 15.22 ¹³C spectra of CDCl₃ and CD₂Cl₂. Deuterium, for which I = 1, le...Figure 15.23 COSY spectrum of 3‐heptanone. On this representation, on a give...Figure 15.24 NOESY spectrum of ethylbenzene. The result of a NOESY experimen...Figure 15.25 ¹³C spectrum of ethylbenzene decoupled from protons and HSQC sp...Figure 15.26 NMR spectra of monofluoroacetone. An example of heteronuclear c...Figure 15.27 Positions of some NMR signals due to fluorine and phosphorus.Figure 15.28 Recording obtained from an experiment using coupled HPLC‐¹H NMR...Figure 15.29 NMR spectrum of a mixture of acetone (A) and benzene (B). If S_AFigure 15.30 Spectrum of a sample to which a reference compound R has been a...Figure 15.31 Determination of the solid fat index by means of decrease in FI...Figure 15.32 Inside view of a kiwi fruit. One of these images is a photo of ...Figure P15.1

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Fragmentation spectrum and mass spectrum presented in graphical ...Figure 16.2 Diagram of mass spectrometer components.Figure 16.3 Resolving power. Left, definition of this parameter in the case ...Figure 16.4 Resolving power established using experimental spectra. Left, an...Figure 16.5 Interfacing between a separation method and mass spectrometry.Figure 16.6 Installation of a pumping system of a mass spectrometer. The tur...Figure 16.7 Turbomolecular pump. Basic diagram. The pumping effect is obtain...Figure 16.8 Electron ionization. The collision of an electron with a molecul...Figure 16.9 Influence of electron energy on fragmentation. An example with b...Figure 16.10 Chemical ionization. Formation of cationic species from methane...Figure 16.11 FAB and MALDI techniques. (a) The principle of formation of a f...Figure 16.12 Atmospheric pressure ionization by electrospray (ion spray). Th...Figure 16.13 Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization. (1) The sample soluti...Figure 16.14 Multicharged molecular ions. A spectrum obtained from cytochrom...Figure 16.15 Representation of the appropriate ranges for the main ionizatio...Figure 16.16 A 180° magnetic deflection spectrograph with a velocity filter....Figure 16.17 An instrument designed with a BE‐type electromagnetic analyser....Figure 16.18 Influence of the accelerating voltage upon the range of velocit...Figure 16.19 Layout of a double‐focusing EB mass spectrometer. R’ and R meas...Figure 16.20 A simplified diagram of a time‐of‐flight spectrometer and the p...Figure 16.21 Diagram of a linear quadrupole. Notice the connection of bars t...Figure 16.22 Quadrupole filter. Depending upon their mass, the ions respond ...Figure 16.23 Example of residual gases in a strong vacuum. The recording is ...Figure 16.24 Ion‐trap spectrometers. (a) Design of the electrodes in an ion ...Figure 16.25 Introduction (a), confinement (b), and ejection (c) of ions in ...Figure 16.26 The principle of ICRMS. (a) Basic ion trajectory subject to mag...Figure 16.27 A triple quadrupole (MS/MS). In this assembly, called QQQ, the ...Figure 16.28 MS detectors. (a) Discrete dynode model with active film(b)...Figure 16.29 Spectral profile of an antibody of high molecular mass. This sp...Figure 16.30 Fragmentation spectrum of butanone obtained by electron ionizat...Figure 16.31 Fragmentation modes of an ether, with diethyl ether taken as an...Figure 16.32 McLafferty rearrangement. Situation for butanal C₄H₈OFigure 16.33 Metastable ion peak. Theoretical appearance of the three peaks ...Figure 16.34 Metastable ion peaks observed during fragmentation of theobromi...Figure 16.35 Peptide bond cleavage. In this example of a tetrapeptide treate...Figure 16.36 Plasma torch ionization and recording obtained by the ICP/MS me...Figure P16.1 Figure P16.2 Figure P16.3 Figure P16.4 Figure P16.5

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Radioimmunology testing – the different steps.Figure 17.2 HPLC/MS measurement of caffeine by isotopic dilution. The stable...Figure 17.3 Different parts of an accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS).Figure 17.4 The different steps of an ELISA‐type immune‐enzymatic test with ...Figure 17.5 Relationship between concentration and absorbance of ELISA assay...Figure 17.6 The EMIT technique. Enzymes are often used as tracers because th...Figure 17.7 Diagram of neutron activation. When a neutron interacts with the...Figure 17.8 A nonconventional application of neutron activation. When it is ...Figure 17.9 Three molecules labelled at a single site with ¹⁴C. This radiois...Figure 17.10 Three molecules labelled at a single site with ¹⁴C. Fluorescenc...

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Presentation of an elemental analysis.Figure 18.2 Pregl and Simon methods of microanalysis. Generations of student...Figure 18.3 Microanalysis apparatus with chromatographic detection. The fill...Figure 18.4 Instrument for nitrogen analysis. This instrument is a modern ad...Figure 18.5 A total nitrogen analyser. Model COT/TNAmong others this typ...Figure 18.6 Mercury analysers using AAS or cold vapour AFS. (a) Atomic absor...Figure 18.7 Ion mobility spectrometer (IMS). Ions are repetitively admitted ...

19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Measurement set‐up of an ion‐selective electrode (ISE). The sele...Figure 19.2 Glass electrode for measuring pH. The concentration of H⁺ ions i...Figure 19.3 Measurement set‐up of ion‐specific electrodes (ISE). Diagram of ...Figure 19.4 Liquid membrane electrode for the Ca²⁺ ion and organic compounds...Figure 19.5 Dissolved gas potentiometric sensor. Diagrams with two separate ...Figure 19.6 Example of an assay by direct potentiometry. The calibration cur...Figure P19.1

20 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Assembly of a voltammetric cell. (a) DC set‐up in which no curre...Figure 20.2 Evolution of the mercury drop diameter over time. Fresh‐drop DME...Figure 20.3 A polarographic wave. Polarogram of a solution containing 10 ppm...Figure 20.4 Sampling polarography. This technique increases the sensitivity ...Figure 20.5 Pulse polarography. NPP and DPP techniques. The diagram of the t...Figure 20.6 Square wave polarography (SWP). A periodic square wave signal wi...Figure 20.7 Determination of cations with a mercury film electrode by anodic...Figure 20.8 Coulometer to determine water content in accordance with the Kar...Figure 20.9 Karl Fischer coulometer electrodes. The purpose of the diaphragm...Figure 20.10 Voltammetric detection in HPLC and HPCE. (a) Two models of volt...Figure 20.11 A Clark sensor for oxygen determination. Cell with two concentr...Figure 20.12 Amperometric gas sensors (AGS).Figure 20.13 Two‐electrode cell for oxygen. The lead anode is progressively ...Figure 20.14 Two‐ and three‐electrode cells for carbon monoxide. Electrochem...Figure 20.15 Oxidation of glucose by glucose oxidase. The reaction diagram s...Figure 20.16 Amperometric measurement of glucose. First generation based on ...

21 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Statistics displaying the proportion of time spent in each stage...Figure 21.2 Solid phase extraction. The separation of an analyte from the ma...Figure 21.3 Principle of immuno‐affinity extraction. The different steps of ...Figure 21.4 Micro‐extraction procedures. (a) Micro‐extraction using an adsor...Figure 21.5 Gas extraction. Principle of a gas/solid extraction column. A ch...Figure 21.6 Headspace analysis in static mode and in dynamic mode. In static...Figure 21.7 Supercritical fluid extraction. Comparison of the eluting powers...Figure 21.8 Microwave digester. Detailed view of the 15‐count carrousel and ...

22 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 Graphic illustration of the data from Table 22.1. To illustrate ...Figure 22.2 Gaussian curves. When the number of measurements increases and i...Figure 22.3 Linear regression and Theil’s line corresponding to the data fro...Figure 22.4 Diagram of the linear equation calculation using Theil’s method ...Figure 22.5 The one‐factor‐at‐a‐time method. If there is a continuous‐respon...