Читать книгу Smart Grid and Enabling Technologies - Frede Blaabjerg - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 The fundamentals of electric power system. Adapted from Ref Num [...Figure 1.2 Selection of rated voltage for three‐phase AC transmission line. ...Figure 1.3 Main types used in electric power distribution, (a) Redial feeder...Figure 1.4 Traditional power grid.Figure 1.5 The conceptual model of SG framework. Ref [18]. Reproduced with p...Figure 1.6 SG components.Figure 1.7 Main key technology areas of smart grid.Figure 1.8 Distributed energy resources paradigm in smart grid. Ref [20]. Re...Figure 1.9 The distributed energy storage system.Figure 1.10 Schematic diagram communication infrastructure for the SG.Figure 1.11 Customer engagement demand side management spending by region, 2...Figure 1.12 Distributed operation architecture with two levels.Figure 1.13 Decentralized operation architecture.Figure 1.14 Local operation architecture.Figure 1.15 Central operation architecture.Figure 1.16 Classification of DR.Figure 1.17 The difference between the conventional power grid and smart gri...Figure 1.18 Three trends of the grid edge transformation.Figure 1.19 Technologies for the evolution of the SG.Figure 1.20 Fishbone diagram showing gaps.Figure 1.21 The main stages for achieving grid modernization.Figure 1.22 SG role in the electricity power sector.Figure 1.23 SG investment. Adapted from [89].Figure 1.24 SG costs Ref [90]. Reproduced with permission from EPRI (Electri...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Flowchart of the common renewable energy sources.Figure 2.2 Renewable energy resources theoretical potential.Figure 2.3 Total renewable power installed capacity (GW), including its annu...Figure 2.4 Main features of the bioenergy energy technology. Adapted from [1...Figure 2.5 Bioenergy conversion processes for different end products.Figure 2.6 Global biomass cumulative installed capacity, 2000–2013. Ref Num ...Figure 2.7 Biomass installed capacity for energy systems (2010–2025). Ref Nu...Figure 2.8 Cumulative installed geothermal generating capacity by top 10 cou...Figure 2.9 Global geothermal installed capacity from 1950 up to 2019 and its...Figure 2.10 Hydropower generation by top 10 countries in 2019. Adapted from ...Figure 2.11 The evolution of world hydropower generation since 1980.Figure 2.12 Global ocean power capacity forecasting.Figure 2.13 Global integrated solar PV capacity from 2000 to 2019.Figure 2.14 Solar PV global capacity by top 10 countries in 2019.Figure 2.15 PV shares of grid‐connected (distributed and centralized) and of...Figure 2.16 Global installed concentrating solar power capacity, 2000–2019....Figure 2.17 Concentrating solar power capacity in the top 10 countries in 20...Figure 2.18 Solar water heating collectors’ global capacity, 2000–2019.Figure 2.19 Solar water heating collector capacity by top 10 countries in 20...Figure 2.20 Growth in capacity and rotor diameter of wind turbines, 1985–201...Figure 2.21 Total installed global wind power capacity, 2000–2019.Figure 2.22 Installed wind power capacity, top 10 countries in 2019.Figure 2.23 Wind power market forecast for 2017–2021. Ref [55]. Reproduced w...Figure 2.24 Predicted world total installed renewable generating capacity, 2...Figure 2.25 Predicted world renewable electricity generation and their globa...Figure 2.26 Potential features of renewable energy sources integration.Figure 2.27 Financial investments in renewable energy by technology, 2004–20...Figure 2.28 Research and development costs on renewable energy, 2004–2019, A...Figure 2.29 Global employment in renewable energy 2011–2018, Adapted from [5...Figure 2.30 Renewable energy market development process, [9]. Reproduced wit...Figure 2.31 Barriers to renewable energy technology deployment.Figure 2.32 Maturity of selected renewable energy technologies, Adapted from...Figure 2.33 Common challenges in bulk implementation of RES into the SG [9]....Figure 2.34 Modern power system flexibility measures.Figure 2.35 Overview of technical solutions for renewables integration into ...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 The world net electricity generation from 2012 to 2040 (trillion ...Figure 3.2 A general grid connected PV power system.Figure 3.3 A general wind power system. Adapted from Ref Num [12].Figure 3.4 Voltage source converter with synchronous reference frame control...Figure 3.5 Voltage source converter with stationary reference frame control ...Figure 3.6 A standard PLL structure for grid synchronization.Figure 3.7 A grid connected virtual synchronous generator system.Figure 3.8 Classical multilevel converter topologies: (a) three‐level neutra...Figure 3.9 A typical configuration of a three‐phase MMC to be applied in sma...Figure 3.10 General block diagram of a classical control method for MMC. Ada...Figure 3.11 Typical structure of an AC microgrid having power electronic int...Figure 3.12 Power flow on a transmission line.Figure 3.13 f‐P and V‐Q droops applied in power electronic based systems.Figure 3.14 f‐Q and V‐P droops applied in power electronic based systems.Figure 3.15 Schematic of virtual impedance in a voltage source inverter to b...Figure 3.16 Grid structure control. (a) Centralized control scheme. (b) Dist...Figure 3.17 Typical structure of a DC microgrid connected to a utility grid ...Figure 3.18 DC‐DC power converters and the double loop PI control scheme.Figure 3.19 Control of the AC/DC rectifier shown in Figure 3.17.Figure 3.20 Equivalent circuit for V‐I droop where V is the voltage referenc...Figure 3.21 Equivalent circuit of the extended droop for HESS applications....Figure 3.22 Coordination between V‐I droop and the extended droop for the HE...Figure 3.23 The current sharing pattern in the HESS by using the extended dr...Figure 3.24 Mode adaptive droop control [55].

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 An electrical energy storage (EES) system structure (a) and energ...Figure 4.2 Classification of electrical energy storage technologies accordin...Figure 4.3 Electrical energy storage technologies classification according t...Figure 4.4 Maturity of electrical energy storage technologies.Figure 4.5 Global Grid‐Connected Energy Storage Capacity, by Technology, 201...Figure 4.6 Electricity storage technologies comparison – discharge time vs p...Figure 4.7 Self‐discharge and suggested storage period of energy storage sys...Figure 4.8 Comparison of power density and energy density of energy storage ...Figure 4.9 Energy storage technologies capital cost, 2018.Figure 4.10 Levelized cost of storage (LCOS) for different technologies, 201...Figure 4.11 Typical cycle efficiency (max. and min.) of energy storage syste...Figure 4.12 Energy Stored on Energy Invested (ESOI) ratios of different ener...Figure 4.13 Cost calculation for energy storage system. Ref Num [39]. Reprod...Figure 4.14 An example for optimal allocation procedure of ESS in distributi...Figure 4.15 Selected services of energy storage systems with the correspondi...Figure 4.16 Typical grid energy storage applications at different voltage le...Figure 4.17 Energy Storage main deployment barriers.

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The simplified single‐line diagram of a microgrid.Figure 5.2 Typical configuration of the DG units with (a) LVAC network; (b) ...Figure 5.3 AC microgrid structure with DG units and mixed types of loads.Figure 5.4 Concept of a DC microgrid system with the DG units and mixed type...Figure 5.5 PV solar power modules price learning curve for different technol...Figure 5.6 The hierarchical control structure of the microgrid. Adapted from...Figure 5.7 The simplified single‐line diagram and DG structure of microgrid ...Figure 5.8 P/ω and Q/E droop characteristics [8]. Reproduced with permission...Figure 5.9 The simplified control scheme of traditional droop control for DG...Figure 5.10 Comparison of traditional and opposite droop characteristics.Figure 5.11 General structure of centralized and decentralized control appro...Figure 5.12 Control and management architecture of a multi‐microgrid system....Figure 5.13 An overview of micro grid benefits Ref [67]. Reproduced with per...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Global sales of electric cars (BEV and PHEV) by year.Figure 6.2 The typical powertrain configuration of series HEV.Figure 6.3 The typical powertrain configuration of parallel HEV.Figure 6.4 The typical powertrain configuration of series–parallel HEV.Figure 6.5 The simplified block diagram of battery charger.Figure 6.6 EV charging configuration at (a) AC Level 1 and 2 setups; (b) DC ...Figure 6.7 The general structure of wireless power transfer technology for E...Figure 6.8 Concepts of (a) static WPT system; and (b) dynamic WPT system.Figure 6.9 The general structure of V2G, V2H, and V2V concepts in power syst...Figure 6.10 The typical bidirectional power converter topology for bidirecti...Figure 6.11 Technological, social, and economic problems of EVs.

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 The net‐Zero Energy Concept (nZEC). Adapted from Ref Num [2].Figure 7.2 Net Zero Energy Building (nZEB) overview and relevant terminology...Figure 7.3 The nZEB balance concept. Ref Num [4]. Reproduced with permission...Figure 7.4 nZEB main design elements.Figure 7.5 Main design elements for the nZEB.Figure 7.6 Fully integrated nZEB energy management system. Adapted from Ref ...Figure 7.7 Utilization share of major simulation programs in building optimi...Figure 7.8 Renewable energy system size Multi‐objective design optimization....Figure 7.9 Net Zero Energy Community: general overview.Figure 7.10 Global building efficiency revenue, 2011–2018.

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Evolution of electricity metering.Figure 8.2 Illustration of typical smart meter systems.Figure 8.3 Architectural model of smart meter system.Figure 8.4 Smart meter security objectives. Ref Num [6]. Reproduced with per...Figure 8.5 SG communication: a hierarchical structure with three major netwo...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Basic information layer of SG.Figure 9.2 Basic communication layer. Adapted from Ref Num [5].Figure 9.3 Resilient control system framework.Figure 9.4 Percentage of attacks on grid components. Ref Num [15]. Reproduce...Figure 9.5 Main security objectives in SG. Adapted from Ref [24].Figure 9.6 Relation between cyber threats and SG cyber requirements. Adapted...Figure 9.7 Common sources of cyber‐attacks. Adapted from Ref [34].Figure 9.8 Impact of attacks on the power grid.Figure 9.9 Cyber incidents percentages in 2017.

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Data sources used by SG.Figure 10.2 Pattern of big data volume in electric utilities. Adapted from R...Figure 10.3 Big Data architecture and patterns.Figure 10.4 Big data process.Figure 10.5 An approach to develop a platform‐oriented analytical architectu...Figure 10.6 Big Data V's.Figure 10.7 The path of SG. Adapted from Ref Num [33].Figure 10.8 Integrated analytics model to generate value.Figure 10.9 Meter data management.

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Benefits of demand side management. Adapted from Ref [3].Figure 11.2 Demand response.Figure 11.3 Major features load response programs.Figure 11.4 Major features of price response programs.Figure 11.5 DR programs. Adapted from Ref [8].Figure 11.6 Clarification of the procedure of end‐user‐interaction defining ...Figure 11.7 A stylized interpretation.Figure 11.8 Major areas of dDSM.Figure 11.9 Relationships between DSM Table 11.1.1 Programs. Adapted from Re...Figure 11.10 Process evaluation of DSM.Figure 11.11 Major Research Studies worldwide. Ref [22]. Reproduced with per...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Conceptualization of the business model canvas.Figure 12.2 The business model framework used to understand the impact of SG...Figure 12.3 The traditional electricity value chain.Figure 12.4 The emerging electricity value chain with both power and informa...Figure 12.5 Structure of electricity trading for different time horizons.Figure 12.6 Market entities and their interactions in smart grid arena.Figure 12.7 The timing‐based business model and its created value for the SG...Figure 12.8 The business intelligence framework which can be applied to the ...Figure 12.9 Benefits of integrated energy services.Figure 12.10 Future business model levers for the SG. Ref [24]. Used with pe...Figure 12.11 Blockchain based electricity market [25].

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Traditional electric power system structure.Figure 13.2 Concept of the SG – indicating physical and communication interc...Figure 13.3 Concept of prosumer on SG.Figure 13.4 Building blocks of the SG [22]. Reproduced with permission from ...Figure 13.5 The three pillars of the SG: smart marker; smart utility and sma...Figure 13.6 Different SG domains.Figure 13.7 The energy cultures conceptual framework.Figure 13.8 Theory of reasoned action.Figure 13.9 Theory of planned behavior.Figure 13.10 Theory of planned behavior model with resistance to change vari...Figure 13.11 Technology acceptance model.Figure 13.12 Technology acceptance model integrated with perceived risk.Figure 13.13 Technology acceptance model for SG with external variables set....Figure 13.14 Value‐based adoption model of technology.Figure 13.15 The three dimensions of the SG social acceptance, which are: ma...Figure 13.16 The innovation decision process in the SG arena.Figure 13.17 Factors affecting the rate of innovation adoption toward SG.Figure 13.18 Transtheoretical model – the process of change toward SG.Figure 13.19 The Fogg behavior model has three factors: motivation, ability,...Figure 13.20 SG expectation cycle [88]. Reproduces with permission from Pric...Figure 13.21 Energy providers‐consumer new relationships focus areas in SG....

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 The relationship between SG, cloud computing, and big data.Figure 14.2 Cloud computing model essential characteristics.Figure 14.3 Cloud computing layers.Figure 14.4 Three forms of the clouds; Public, Private, or Hybrid clouds.Figure 14.5 Workload distribution architecture.Figure 14.6 Cloud bursting architecture.Figure 14.7 Dynamic scalable architecture.Figure 14.8 Elastic resource capacity architecture.Figure 14.9 Cloud computing platform coupled with SG.Figure 14.10 Various SG applications supported by cloud.Figure 14.11 SG with and without cloud computing.Figure 14.12 The cloud computing characteristics.Figure 14.13 Cloud computing opportunities and challenges for smart grid.Figure 14.14 Major categories of data security challenges.

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Frequency of use of terms AI, SG, DL, and smart cities in books ...Figure 15.2 Search methodology based on keyword combinations.Figure 15.3 Machine learning classes and usage.Figure 15.4 Machine learning models with their open‐source libraries.Figure 15.5 Pictorial representation of the AI Models applied to SG in 2019–...Figure 15.6 Timescale evolution of Artificial Neural Networks with Operation...Figure 15.7 Fuzzy inference system structure.Figure 15.8 Flow diagram of expert system.Figure 15.9 Representation of hybrid models applied to SG.Figure 15.10 Representation of hybrid models applied to SG.Figure 15.11 Commonly used score metrics for regression.Figure 15.12 Forecasting procedure.Figure 15.13 Flowchart of advanced MPPT algorithms.Figure 15.14 Classification of faults in power systems.Figure 15.15 Structure of the cyber‐physical system.Figure 15.16 Flowchart of electricity pricing factors.

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 A conceptual structure of co‐simulation [12]. Reproduces with pe...Figure 16.2 Distinction between co‐simulation and other simulation types [1]...Figure 16.3 Specific and generic co‐simulation structures.Figure 16.4 The structure of Controller‐HIL and Power‐HIL platforms.Figure 16.5 Summary of basic analysis fields in each tool.

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 US Smart Meter Installations.Figure 17.2 General overview of the active committees in the SG environment....Figure 17.3 SG technical standards architecture developed by SGCC.

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Structure of future power networks with hybrid AC and DC sub‐gri...Figure 18.2 Typical structure of smart distribution grids.Figure 18.3 Reliability concepts in electric power systems.Figure 18.4 Reliability concepts in modern SGs.