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CHAPTER ONE

Historical Background

The history of the Japanese print follows two main trajectories. The first is the use of woodblock cutting in the eighth century as a means of producing reproductions of religious texts. The second is the development, over a number of phases, of the wood-cut technique as an illustration form. The earliest bold “black ink printed pictures” (sumizuri-e) that developed around 1600, gave way in the period 1720–40 to delicately hand-colored “pink pictures” (beni-e) tinted with a pink ink produced from the safflower, and two-color hand-colored prints (tan-e) using red and green pigments. This led to the evolution, around 1745, of the earliest mass-produced color woodblock prints, literally “pink printed pictures” (benizuri-e), which initially used two color blocks, a light green and a light red, in imitation of the hand-colored tan-e color scheme. A third color, yellow, was added in the 1750s. The final stage of development, the mass-produced multicolored block-printed “brocade pictures” (nishiki-e) that we generally associate with this art form today, began in the mid-1760s in Edo (the former name for Tokyo).

In the available literature on ancient Buddhist prints, there is no consensus as to when woodblock prints were first made in Japan although most sources agree that the purpose of the print was to spread the knowledge of Buddhism in Japan. Woodblock-printed books from Chinese temples, carried by travelers, were seen in Japan as early as the eighth century. There is also agreement that the technique, and subsequent expertise of the craft, originated in China and was probably brought to Japan via Korea.

In Japan, the earliest documented examples of woodblock printing comprise small slips of paper containing prayers (darani), which were inserted into small hollow pagodas carved from the wood of Japanese cypress trees (Figs. 2, 3). These prayers, about 45.5 cm (18 inches) long and 5 cm (2 inches) wide, were part of the Hyakumanto Darani commissioned by Empress Shotoku (718–70), the 46th and 48th imperial ruler of Japan, as thanksgiving for the suppression of a rebellion. The small pagodas, with their prayer paper inserts, were distributed by the thousands to various temples throughout Japan in the mid-eighth century. About a hundred of them still remain at Horyu-ji Temple in Kyoto. Eventually, most were sold or given away to donors to the temple.

There is speculation as to whether the original block for the Hyakumanto Darani was wood or copper. Most experts think the block was wood, but 1,000,000 copies would wear the block down severely. Logistically, it is difficult to contemplate where this vast amount of printing was done, and how many printers and wood workers were employed in creating it. The printing and the production of 1,000,000 pagodas from Japanese cypress wood purportedly took six years to complete. It was a tremendous task, and all done by the hands of superb craftsmen.

Other survivors of this massive effort of dissemination are still to be found in numerous temples, museums and private collections throughout the country (Figs. 4, 5). Because of their antiquity, there are some concerns about the authenticity of some of the blocks carved with prayers. There is one that was supposedly carved by Kobo Daishi, the founder of Japanese Buddhism, in the seventh to eighth century. But whether it is authentic or not is irrelevant. What is important is that it dates from the time when Buddhism was gaining a foothold in Japan. Some of these blocks were used for reprinting at later dates as well as in ancient times. Indisputably, darani represent the earliest examples of woodblock printing in Japan.

Over the following centuries, Buddhist-related prints became available for study. Some comprised sutras or Buddhist precepts while others were printed in outline and colored by hand. Many images, small in size, were stuffed into the hollows of Buddhist statues as late as the fourteenth century. It is possible that other unknown prints are still lying inside the empty voids of statues in some of Japan’s temples.

Wooden movable type was also introduced from China, where it was developed in the mid-eleventh century and used to publish Buddhist prayer books. Printed religious illustrations often accompanied the text, and in the fifteenth century a remarkable horizontal scroll with illustrations over 4.5 meters (15 feet) long printed from numerous blocks was produced.

Between the early twelfth to the late sixteenth century, Japan suffered from long periods of strife and civil war, power struggles between clans and imperial courts, and attempted invasions by the Mongols. During these times, fires gutted many of the storehouses of the nobility, the wealthy and the temples. Famous monasteries, which also functioned as publishing centers, were burnt. Kyoto, the capital, was devastated. It was not until the Edo period (1615–1867), when the Tokugawa family of shogun fastened their grip on the country and kept out foreign influences that change slowly occurred. The relative peace that ensued after centuries of political unrest provided an ideal environment for the development of popular culture, including art in a commercial form.

The secular development of wood-block printing, along with theater and other amusements, can be traced to the urbanization that took place in the late sixteenth century in Japan as a result of the declining influence of the warrior samurai class and the rise of a class of merchants and artisans (chonin), literally “town people,” who began writing stories or novels based on urban life and culture, and painting pictures that were compiled in picture books. Although in theory the lowest social class under the Tokugawa shogunate, the chonin soon became economically the most powerful group—a thriving merchant class who lived for the moment and had the money to enjoy it. They enjoyed luxurious lives, free of the influences of the classicism of the nobility and the Confucianism of the samurai class. Much of their wealth and spare energy was spent in diversions available in Edo’s “floating world,” the realm of entertainments (courtesans, geisha, teahouses, kabuki theater, sumo wrestling) outside their mundane, everyday world. Certainly, the popularity of the prints showing the ordinary daily life of townsmen was in complete contrast to the works of official painters who serviced the nobility and the samurai class. These painters mostly came from the Tosa and Kano schools of Japanese painting, founded in the fifteenth century.

FIG. 2

Pagoda パゴダ

(AD 770)

Japanese cypress wood, 35 x 10 cm Photo courtesy Yagi Book Store

Originally from the Horyu-ji Temple in Kyoto, this carved pagoda contained a copy of the Hyakumanto Darani, probably the world’s oldest woodblock print.

FIG. 3

Pagoda 上部をはずしたパゴダ

(AD 770)

Japanese cypress wood, 35 x 10 cm

Photo courtesy Yagi Book Store

The top of the pagoda in Fig. 2 is removed, revealing the hollow space in which the printed prayer is rolled up and inserted. The prayer is shown in its entirely on the lower portion of the photo.

FIG. 4

Author examining the Hyakumanto Darani and its original container, a wood pagoda, with the owner of Yagi Book Store, Akira Yagi.

Photo courtesy Yagi Book Store

I was fortunate to be able to handle this ancient print, which comprises ten different darani (prayers), and its carved cypress wood pagoda container.

FIG. 5

Detail of a copy of the Hyakumanto Darani (AD 770).

FIG. 6

Hishikawa MORONOBU

菱川 師信 (1618–94)

Lovers on the Veranda

ベランダの恋人 (1650s)

Black and white print (sumizuri-e), 26 x 18 cm

Author’s Collection

This black ink (sumi) printed illustration from a novel is an example of curvilinear composition held together by the architectural elements of the interior. Only the hairstyles, created with deep black accents, and the kimono patterns allow us to distinguish between the man and the woman.

FIG. 7

Hishikawa MORONOBU

菱川 師信 (1618–94)

Cherry Blossom Viewing 花見 (1680s)

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 33 x 44 cm

Author’s Collection

A high-ranking official and his follower enjoy the ohanami (cherry viewing) while being entertained by courtesans, one of whom plays the shamisen while three others dance. Mats have been set on the ground, incense is burning and saké is being heated and served. Other than the costumes, the exact same scene takes place annually all over Japan during the cherry blossom season.

FIG. 8

Hishikawa MORONOBU

菱川 師信 (1618–94)

or Nishikawa SUKENOBU

祐信 (1671–1751)

Lovers in the Garden 庭園の恋人 (1690s)

Black and white print (sumizuri-e), 26 x 35 cm

Author’s Collection

As most early prints are unsigned, it is uncertain who the artist was. It is a typical Moronobu composition although the scalloped curves in the upper corners was a device used extensively by Sukenobu. The print is probably the first page of a book of shunga (erotica). The samurai has his hand inside his lover’s kimono, feeling her breast. His sword leans against the rocks. This composition is perfectly balanced between the detailed flowers on the left and the simplicity of the right side, with the two figures separating the compositional elements.

FIG. 9

Hishikawa MORONOBU

菱川 師信 (1618–94)

or Nishikawa SUKENOBU

祐信 (1671–1751)

Lovers 恋人 (1690s)

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 23 x 34 cm

Author’s Collection

A love scene in front of a garden, in which the framed painted screen in the interior repeats almost exactly the view from the veranda. The lovers are just beginning their adventure as the samurai has yet to remove his sword.

It is perhaps not surprisingly that the first subject matter of ukiyo-e, itself an ambiguous term but most often referred to as “pictures of the floating world,” should depict the hedonistic way of life in the after-hours world of Edo, even then a very large city. In the early stages, most ukiyo-e were created as posters advertising local entertainment such as theater performances and wrestling and services offered by tea-houses, restaurants, bars and brothels. Many carried portraits of popular actors and beautiful women from the tearooms, shops and pleasure quarters of Edo. Some were specially created as souvenirs for clientele, sometimes in the form of flat fans.

The largest volume of secular wood-block printing was, however, confined to book illustration relating to poetry and other educational purposes, such as travel guides, advice manuals, art books, satirical novels, books on urban culture, play scripts for the puppet theater, and to ukiyo-e. Images in books were almost always in monochrome (black sumi ink only), and for a time art prints were also monochrome or done in only two or three colors. Although ukiyo-e were often used for book illustrations, they gained most popularity as single-sheet prints.

Thanks to the rapidly increasing level of literacy as well as the growing affluence of the merchant class, ukiyo-e became extremely popular among the middle (merchant) class. Even if these people could not yet afford an original painting, a mass-produced woodblock print was easily within their reach. They were the cheapest way to decorate homes. The prints could be pasted on walls and sliding doors (fusuma) or on blank folding screens. Tall, narrow prints could also be glued to the pillar dividing the room panels (hashira-e) or hung as scrolls (kakemono), especially in the alcove of a room.

The merchant class also came to influence the subject matter of ukiyo-e. The more or less sophisticated world of urban pleasures was also animated by the traditional Japanese love of nature. Scenes from the natural world, particularly landscapes, were particularly popular and are among the most famous ukiyo-e today. Ukiyo-e traditions were to have an enormous impact on Western art in the late nineteenth century.

For many years there has been debate over the artist responsible for starting ukiyo-e. Although it is likely that there was no single originator but, rather, a slow development coinciding with the creation of novels and plays compiled in book form that required picture illustrations, two names are often proposed as the originators of ukiyo-e— Iwasa Matabei (1578–1650) and Hishikawa Moronobu (1618–94). Matabei, however, was primarily a painter, not a printmaker, who specialized in genre scenes of historical events and illustrations of classical Chinese and Japanese literature. Moreover, he died before the Genroku era (1688– 1704), generally considered to be the Golden Age of the Edo period when popular culture flourished and new art forms like kabuki and ukiyo-e became very popular, especially among the townspeople. This was also the period immediately following religious-related woodcut production.

Moronobu not only painted but also turned out hundreds of prints in the form of illustrated books. Although Chapter 3 of this book is dedicated to illustrated books, so many of Moronobu’s books and albums have been dismantled and sold as separate sheets to collectors that we can also view his work as individual stand-alone prints even if they were once part of a book or album. As the most prolific artist of the seventeenth century, he deserves to be given credit as the true founder of the so-called “primitive” ukiyo-e printing period.

Even though Moronobu is known as an Edo artist, many of his books were published in Kyoto where he studied under Kano Tanyu, a master painter of the Tosa school of art. This links with the beginnings of ukiyo-e from Tosa-e —works produced by artists of the popular school of art who serviced the artistic needs of the upper classes of Japan.

Moronobu’s prints are pure sumizuri-e, bold black and white designs (Figs. 6–9). An outline, consistent in size, weaves in and out of the figural compositions and is broken only by the solid black patterns of the costumes and the hair arrangements. Texture is introduced by the use of small patterns. His figures always seem to be bent at the knee, producing a dance-like stance. On occasion, one can come across a Moronobu print that is hand colored in the subtlest choice of hues.

In the traditions established by Moronobu, we next meet one of the most prolific of the Genroku artists, Nishikawa Sukenobu (1671–1751). The first dated work of his is 1699. Prior to this, he is recorded to have studied in both the Tosa and Kano schools of painting. Sukenobu brought a lifelike presence to his figures (Fig. 10). We sense the actual weight of the human body, not just a doll-like replica. Sukenobu was interested in women of all classes, from the nobility to the common peddlers of the day who went from house to house selling everything from food to firewood, and in all aspects of their lives. His figures twist and turn and perform movements that are natural and believable. Sukenobu’s line also varies a little more than his predecessors. There is almost a calli-graphic quality to his work, which becomes much more apparent with the group of artists who came after him. Another follower of Moronobu, Sugimura Jihei (active 1681–97), specialized in shunga or erotic prints in a flamboyant and decorative style but also portrayed beautiful women (Fig. 11).

There follows two early eighteenth-century groups from Edo who conclude the “primitives”: the Torii school, which dominated the print world for over seventy-five years and specialized in actor and theater prints (see Chapter 6), and the Kaigetsudo school, primarily known for its prints of beautiful women dressed in elaborately patterned kimono (see Chapter 5).

FIG. 10

Nishikawa SUKENOBU

祐信 (1671–1751)

Three Courtesans Preparing for a Party

宴に備える3人の遊女 (1710s)

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 28 x 38 cm

Author’s Collection

This is a good example of an indoor–outdoor scene. The relative importance of the three courtesans is indicated by their differing sizes.

The Torii school, founded by Torii Kiyonobu I (1664–1729) (Fig. 12), produced such artists as Torii Kiyomasu I (ca. 1694–1716?), who lived a short but talented life and is believed to be either the son or younger brother of Kiyonobu I (Figs. 13, 14), and his successors, Torii Kiyomasa II (1706– 63) (Figs. 15, 16) and Torii Kiyotada I (1720–50) (Fig. 17). The early Torii school artists worked so closely together and were so intermixed by family ties and teacher–pupil relations that it takes a great deal of expertise to differentiate their work. For example, some people believe that Kiyomasu II and Kiyonobu II are one and the same person. Others say Kiyomasu II was the adopted sonin-law of Kiyonobu II.

The Kaigetsudo school, founded around 1700–14 by the painter Kaigetsudo Ando (n.d.), includes in its ranks several significant artists, among them Nishimura Shigenobu (active 1724–35) (Fig. 18), Okumura Masanobu (1686–1764) (Fig. 19) and Ishikawa Toyonobu (1711–85) (Fig. 20). As with the Torii school, the styles of the various Kaigetsudo artists are very similar and it is often difficult to differentiate them. However, all tended to work in larger format prints and almost all portray a single female figure, at times with an attendant. The prints swing in an uncontrolled rhythm using an exciting thick calligraphic line to define the pose. There is a wonderful contrast between the thick curvilinear outline and the very fine thin line that describes the features of the head, hands and feet. As an artist, I am interested in the fact that these Japanese prints follow a concept identical to one commonly employed by the artists in the Italian Renaissance, namely the counter spiral. The head and feet point in an opposite direction to the torso, giving the figure, even though stationary, a sense of movement. This concept came naturally to the Japanese whereas it took years for it to be understood in Europe.

All of the prints in this chapter are brightly colored by hand, a technique that will be discussed in more detail in the relevant chapters. These hand-painted prints have interesting descriptive titles, depending on what colors dominated. Most of them are referred to as tan-e. There is some disagreement among scholars as to whether the term tan refers to a deep chrome yellow or to an ochre yellow. Others call tan-e vermillion, with yellow and green being subordinate colors. Prints tinted in red only are referred to as beni-e. The word beni for red is still commonly used for women’s lipstick, which is called kuchibeni (kuchi meaning mouth). If lacquer was used in the hand coloring, the prints are known as urushi-e, urushi being the word for lacquer.

FIG. 11

Sugimura JIHEI

治兵衛 (active 1681–97)

The Court Lady Koshikibu-no-Naishi 小式部内侍

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 59 x 33 cm

Author’s Collection

The court lady Koshikibu-no-Naishi was a well-known poet in the middle of the Heian period, who went to service at the court at the age twelve, led a rather promiscuous life, and after her second child died at the age of twenty-six. Four of her poems are included in an Imperial compiled anthology. This picture, which has a wonderful rhythm of black, shows her visiting the Kitano Shrine expecting to see and hear a cuckoo sing. Her hand points to the ema (votive tablet) with a painted cuckoo, which started to sing as she was composing a poem about it.

FIG. 12

Torii KIYONOBU I

清信 (1664–1729)

The Actor Tsutsui Kichijuro 筒井吉十郎 の京下り (1700s)

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 54 x 31 cm

Author’s Collection

This exciting print shows an actor as a samurai in an animated and provocative pose brandishing two fur-covered spears. The patterns on the kimono are indifferent to the folds as they swirl about the figure.

FIG. 13

Torii KIYOMASU I

清倍 (ca. 1694–1716?)

Reading a Love Letter 恋文を読む (1700s)

Black and white print (sumizuri-e), 53 x 31 cm

Author’s Collection

In this print, a dramatic display of calli-graphic brush strokes creates a sense of rhythm and counter rhythm. Some of the finer lines are not related to the specific forms but are included purely as abstract elements to hold the design together.

FIG. 14

Torii KIYOMASU I

清倍 (ca. 1694–1716?)

Three Kabuki Actors Pounding Rice Paste 三歌舞伎役者の餅つき

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 58 x 31 cm

Author’s Collection

Here, three actors with their family crests prominently displayed are pounding rice inside a wooden barrel into mochi (rice paste), a ritual usually performed during the New Year season. The figure on the right holds the wooden mallet. The rice paste is hardened and cut into small squares that are either roasted or included in a New Year soup.

FIG. 15

Torii KIYOMASU II

二代 清倍 (1706–63)

The Actor Nakamura Senya 中村 千弥

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 60 x 31 cm

Author’s Collection

In this print, Nakamura Senya stands under a cherry tree in full bloom, with a hi-gasa (sunshade umbrella).

FIG. 16

Torii KIYOMASU II

二代 清倍 (1706–63)

Three Cities’ Famous Courtesans 三都 大夫

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 33 x 46 cm

Author’s Collection

This print of three actors in courtesan costumes standing in front of three different houses of pleasure would have been cut into three separate sheets as the publisher’s mark, Urokogataya, appears on all three subjects. This is primarily a study of eighteenth-century Edo fashion.

FIG. 17

Torii KIYOTADA I

清忠 (1720–50)

Kabuki Actor and Two Puppies

歌舞伎役者と二匹の子犬 (1750s)

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 34 x 16.5 cm

Author’s Collection

A woman is watching two little puppies play at her feet. This is a lovely print whose charm is enhanced by the addition of the animals, which is rare in early eighteenth-century Japanese prints.

FIG. 18

Nishimura SHIGENOBU

西村 重信 (active 1724–35)

Kabuki Actor 歌舞伎役者 (1730s)

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 33 x 15.5 cm

Author’s Collection

This possibly depicts the actor Ogino Isaburo in a threatening pose on top of a well. It is almost an abstract picture as many of the enclosed elements are included for design purposes only, for example, the red and yellow hand encircling the left side of the figure. The artist Shigenobu may not have existed but could instead have been a fictitious name created by a publisher who was able to work in the Masanobu style.

FIG. 19

Okumura MASANOBU

奥村 政信 (1686–1764)

The Courtesan Chokaro 遊女張果郎 (1710s)

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 59.5 x 31.5 cm

Author’s Collection

The courtesan’s obi (sash) is tied in a distinctive bow, which is not a style adopted by women from other walks of life. The contrast between the heavy curved lines of the kimono and the fine lines of the head, hands and foot make this an exquisite composition.

FIG. 20

Ishikawa TOYONOBU

石川 豊信 (1711–85)

The Actor Sanogawa Ichimatsu 佐野川 市松 (1740s)

Hand-colored black and white print (tan-e), 68 x 25.5 cm

Author’s Collection

The actor Sanogawa Ichimatsu stands in a graceful and stately pose with his head pointing in the opposite direction to his feet. He is holding a letter or poem in one hand while the other is encased in his kimono sleeve. The last twenty years of Toyonobu’s life were spent running his family’s inn and he therefore produced no prints after 1765.