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Philosophical Theses

Since the real usefulness of any Science in human life is to be measured by its relation to Moral Philosophy (which has rightly been called by Wise Men the Guide and Parent of life),⁵ we must now briefly investigate the connection that Natural Science has with it.

There is no need of a full discussion here about natural Philosophy and its recent development and advances. But anyone who has tasted this Science even with the tip of his tongue, can see that, in its present state, it rests on a very firm foundation, since it is sustained not by fanciful hypotheses or unfounded conjectures, but entirely by either Mathematical reasoning or clear and certain experiments⁶ and Analogy. That this is the only method by which a real knowledge of nature could be advanced and developed, was prescribed long ago by the most Perceptive Verulam.⁷ And it is by this method that it has indeed come about that this Science has reached such a peak of perfection in our time, especially through the wonderful insight and industry of the most illustrious Newton.⁸ In explicating the nature and the Phenomena of light (to make the matter clear by one or two examples) that Great Man first investigated and proved by Analysis the innate differences between rays of light as regards refrangibility, reflexibility and colour, and their alternating phases of readier reflection and transmission, as well

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as the properties of the bodies, both opaque and transparent, on which the reflections and colours of the rays depend. Once he had discovered these things, he assumed them as principles, in order to explain by Synthesis the Phenomena that flow from them. In the same way, after he had derived from celestial Phenomena, by Mathematically demonstrated propositions, the forces by which bodies tend towards the Sun and each of the Planets, he derived from those forces, by propositions equally Mathematical, the motions of the Planets, of Comets and of the Moon. And thus he elaborated an Astronomy which was complete in every respect. Every explanation of Corporeal Effects admitted by modern Physicists rests on exactly the same kind of reasoning. And Newton himself observed some time ago that “if natural Philosophy by pursuing this method eventually becomes a <4> perfect Science complete in all its parts, it will undoubtedly result in a similar extension of the boundaries of Moral Philosophy.”⁹

II

From the most excellent order, harmony and Beauty of the corporeal world is derived a thoroughly lucid argument, by which one may demonstrate, against all Supporters of Atheism, Demonism and Polytheism, that all parts of the world were fashioned in the beginning and are at all times governed by One GOD of supreme intelligence in accordance with the very best design. It is certain that no truth has greater significance than this for the advancement and development of moral Philosophy. For such a great, harmonious, accordant, uniform complex of things could certainly not come about, if all things were not maintained by One Divine and Uniform Spirit.¹⁰ There are very many arguments derived from the abstract and Metaphysical consideration of cause and Effect, of Necessary and dependent existence, fashioned¹¹

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and refined by Metaphysicians with consummate skill, which invincibly demonstrate that GOD exists and rules all things by his Most Wise Providence, even if they are inaccessible to most people, because they are constructed purely of reasoning.¹² Hence we certainly do not give our support to those who repudiate and reject every exemplary and Metaphysical Proof for establishing the Divine Existence and Providence. But at the same time we do not hesitate to maintain that the argument drawn from the most perfect ordering of the corporeal world in confirmation of these things, not only rests upon a very firm foundation but is suited beyond all others to command the assent of a candid mind, free of evil disturbances.¹³ For just as no kind of reasoning expands and extends its usefulness more widely in human lives than that which is derived from experiments and evidence and is founded on analogy, so there is none which affects the Understanding more pleasantly or in which the human mind more securely acquiesces; so perfectly are our minds adjusted to the condition of human life. And this itself is no small sign of a supremely good Providence, which presides over the whole of nature and by its own initiative promotes the welfare of all things but especially the welfare of human beings.

III

It is well-known to the learned that Anaximander, Democritus, Leucippus,¹⁴ and all the ancient Atheists, however much they disagreed with each other, always agreed in this, that they recognized nothing but bodies. It is also well known that some recent writers have used all their ingenuity to

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support this opinion. The most prominent are Spinoza, Hobbes, and Toland.¹⁵ But now the true Science of nature has clearly proved that the whole mass of matter is by itself inert, that it is bound and ruled by necessary laws <5> chosen and determined in utter freedom by the infinitely Wise cause, and thus that no mechanical motion could have either begun or survived for the smallest moment of time apart from a uniform intelligent Cause, which is utterly different in its nature from matter.¹⁶ Nearly all Physicists agree that gravity, fermentation, and cohesion, which seem to be the three effective principles from which all the properties and actions of corporeal things follow, are to be directly resolved into the Divine Virtue.¹⁷ But even if they did not stop here, and were to discover some very subtle cause of these principles (as some believe they will one day), it would not therefore be legitimate to infer that mechanical motions do not depend on some Supreme intelligent Cause. For it is abundantly confirmed by all experiments and in fact by the whole science of matter and motion, that physical causes are simply natural laws and forces, fashioned and preserved with consummate skill by the Most Wise Creator of nature. And in fact, if matter could understand and will and order and direct itself, the possibility of reaching any certain conclusion about the powers and laws of matter would be so remote that nothing more Chimerical could be attempted than a mechanical explanation of nature. But we can best see how much light and advancement this science of matter has brought to moral Philosophy from the fact that this science has made it clear that the supreme Author of nature is Spirit or immaterial substance. And to the extent that

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we can understand from natural Philosophy what the first cause of things is, to that extent we shall know more clearly by the light of nature our duty towards him and the worship which is acceptable to him.¹⁸ This too is how we learn that that in us which thinks, though attached to the body, is very different from it in its nature. From this it is reasonable to infer that the human mind does not necessarily perish with the body, but can exist when liberated from all admixture of body. And if this is the case, nothing seems to come closer to the truth than the immortality of our souls. Nothing certainly is more joyful than the hope of eternal life or fills the honest mind with more pleasing delight. In the midst of sorrows, it brings us relief and consolation. It gives strength and courage to those who fight for GOD, for their Country and for Virtue.

IV

Many disasters proceed from the organization of our earth, to wit, plagues, earthquakes, storms, shipwrecks, and many, many other natural events, very much to the detriment of human life. But anyone who is the least conversant with these matters knows that the very wise laws which govern the world offer a beautiful explanation of these <6> calamities. Here too we may briefly see how much natural Science has contributed towards explaining the administration of the moral world. The system of our world is one, and fully finished from its first formation, and uniform without any mutations, except those which happen in accordance with the very laws by which it is governed by the most perfect Author of nature. And hence it happens that Philosophers have at last succeeded in giving an excellent explanation of almost all its Phenomena, forces and laws, by uniting Geometry with observations, by means of Analysis and Synthesis. The moral world on the other hand is so extensive and complex, that we have been able¹⁹ to understand only a very small part of it. And what is more important, it seems continually to develop, not to be completed in this present state of things, so far as it is known to us by the light of nature. And if this

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is so, it is inevitable that many of its Phenomena should be inexplicable to us. Yet even at first sight we see that very many things in it are governed by a design which is wise and analogous to the organization of the natural world. And a whole number of things which are completely obscure at first and inexplicable become clear and very easy to explain when they have developed a little. Therefore if we combine our knowledge of the moral world and of the natural world, we may surely conclude with the very best of reasons, if it is ever legitimate to reach a universal conclusion on the basis of evidence and examples, that the whole world is subject to one most wise dominion; and that there is one Providence which guides all things most beautifully; and constantly handles the reins of the moral world as well as of the natural with a benevolent and prudent hand. And if we could attain to a full knowledge of the natural world and an equal knowledge of intelligent beings and of their various powers, faculties, dispositions and orders, we would see that all act in concert and are bound by one force and one agreement of nature—as Cicero tells us that certain ancients also thought²⁰—and finally that through the universal bond of nature there is a most beautiful subordination and harmony of all things. But whatever difficulty may be experienced in clarifying the administration of the moral world by the light of nature, one has to admit that the order of the corporeal world is most elegant and exceedingly neat. And it certainly offers us a very fine pattern of life and morals. For we find that as all its parts move in harmony, all are united and as it were banded together in a communion which is very well suited to preserve it and keep it safe; and from this it is certainly reasonable to argue that it is most pleasing to the supreme Creator <7> and Ruler of nature, the Great and Good GOD, that all whom he has made to share in reason and a social sense²¹ should pursue the common good of all intelligent beings. The human mind has been so made by nature that the same passions contribute to private and to public use. And it is through

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that just and regular moderation of the passions by which we constantly cooperate for the common good of intelligent beings that the most beautiful harmony of life and morals is preserved, which is in accord with the regularity of the world, and is acceptable to the infinitely holy GOD, and finally wins the approval of all who are familiar with the measures and rhythms of true life. But nothing is more repulsive or more out of accord with the Harmonious fabric of the world than the evil man, who is governed by no sure mode of life and reason, but is agitated by contradictory passions and is at odds with himself in his whole manner of life.²² And for this reason, men were said by the Ancients to be born to contemplate the world and to imitate it in the moderation and consistency of their lives.

V

The Association by which natural Science and moral Philosophy are connected with each other, is clearly seen in the following. Just as Reason could not fully enjoy the corporeal world without investigating and admiring its order and construction, so no study conducted by reason alone is more closely united with virtue by its own nature or produces more humane passions in our mind. The knowledge of nature fashions us to modesty and magnanimity. For (as Cicero says)²³ the observation and contemplation of nature is like a kind of natural food for our minds and intellects. We are lifted up, we seem to take a broader view, and in thinking on Higher and Heavenly things, we despise our own affairs as small and petty. Further the love and admiration of any kind of order and harmony, does much to induce a humane and sociable frame of mind by itself, and enlarges and supports virtue, which is nothing other than a desire for the order that expresses itself in life and morals. And nothing is more beautiful than the most graceful frame of the world, nothing more delightfully and powerfully attracts our souls by its

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magnificence, constancy and dignity. And certainly the frequent and attentive contemplation of it goes a long way towards expelling evil passions and instilling good order into the mind by a kind of natural efficacy and Sympathy. And finally it is very clear that a true knowledge of nature is well fitted to banish Superstition in Physical matters. By Superstition in Physical matters we mean the conviction that attributes all sorts of wonderful effects <8> to natural causes, even if neither reason nor experience can discern any connection between the cause and the effect. “A not infrequent evil and (as the Learned Werenfelsius S.S.T.P. Bas. well shows in his dissertation on this question) most inimical to a good mind, and if a man once imbibes it, nothing is too ridiculous to find credence with him.”²⁴

VI

Although there are many other things which clearly confirm a beautiful association and Analogy of Physiology with Ethics, it seemed sufficient for our present purpose to select just a few of the more general points. But before we end this dissertation, it is worth noticing how much power a true explanation of nature has had to refute all the subtleties by which Spinoza and his Acolytes so earnestly pretend that they have undermined the miracles which were performed to confirm the Divine Religion.²⁵ For the true Physiology clearly proves that the links and sequences of natural things are not so rigid and unbreakable that the Supreme Lord of the world is not at liberty to perform miracles when it seems good to him to do so. The infinitely powerful and Wise GOD has made and ordained the laws of nature in complete freedom, and he can without doubt fashion and refashion them, and change and alter them at his own discretion. Consequently,

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whenever it seems good to him, he has the power to perform any miracles he pleases that seem to him to be appropriate to confirm any doctrine that he wishes to be revealed and confirmed to men. And it would be easy to prove against Spinoza that the miracles performed to confirm the Christian doctrine were in their nature the best and most suitable evidences and examples of that most excellent doctrine. But we may not spend time on this.²⁶

ANNEXES

1. Logic which trains the mind for the Analytic and Synthetic method of investigating and confirming truths by quite simple examples best prepares the way to the other Sciences. 2. All our Ideas arise from either sensation or reflection. 3. The root of possibility is not to be derived from the Divine will. 4. Animals are not automata. 5. The will by its nature is free. 6. The state of nature is not a State of absolute licence. 7. Moral rightness is founded in nature, but derives its obligation properly so-called from the Divine Authority to forbid and to command.