Читать книгу The history of Russian chest craft (19th – early 20th centuries). Collection of scientific articles - Глеб Пудов - Страница 4

The problem of interaction of craft traditions in the production of chests1is of great importance when examining their artistic style. However, little attention has been paid to it until now. In the scientific literature, from time to time, there are only indications of the generality of the forms of Russian and foreign chest products2. As a rule, that’s as far as it, and, moreover, most often we mean Western European, not Scandinavian items.

The purpose of this article is to identify the results of the interaction of Russian and Scandinavian artistic traditions in chest production, to determine the role and significance of foreign influences on formation of Russian chest products style. The task is to analyse the artistic style, construction and materials of specific works from the collections of Russian and Scandinavian museums. While working on the topic, information from domestic and foreign special literature was used.

It should be noted that the the limitation of the length of the article does not allow considering all the issues and problems associated with this topic. It is truly inexhaustible, so the author only outlines the main points.

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Russian-Scandinavian relations are among the oldest in Europe. Trade and political ties have led to interactions in the spheres of arts and architecture. In Russian-Swedish relations, cooperation in the field of metal processing and sale has acquired particular importance3. In the 1680s and 1690s, together with Russian merchants, Russian armourers, coppersmiths, and tinsmiths came to Sweden every year. The Swedes were among the masters of the Armory. They also worked at Russian ironworks production, weapons factories, glass production, and were on scientific expeditions. Diplomatic embassies played a significant role in the appearance of works of swedish applied art in Russia4. In the 18th century, relations between countries were contradictory. On the one hand, cooperation was interrupted by military conflicts, on the other, it developed especially fruitfully during periods of peace. Swedish masters of various art specialties were hired to work in Russia. At the beginning of the 18th century in St. Petersburg, swedish craftsmen ranked second after the Germans in terms of number5. According to Armin Felkerzam, up to a hundred of them arrived in St. Petersburg only before 17806. It is known that swedish joiners and carpenters took part in the construction of Peterhof. It should be especially noted that they were also among the artisans who taught Russian craftsmen their skill7. Scandinavian craftsmen played a very significant role in the history of Russian applied art in the second half of the 18th century. Swedish silversmiths can be regarded as «the guides of Western styles and Western fashions. Through them all the styles of the 18th century gradually penetrated to Russia, although with a delay of ten years»8. Not only silversmiths, but masters of other specialties were represented in the Russian capital in large numbers. There were swedish masters in other cities and villages of Russia. It is no coincidence that Vladimir Suslov in his «Travel Notes» (1888) pointed to the striking similarity between the objects of peasant life in Sweden and the Russian North. Running a little ahead, we point out that the researcher meant not only Sweden, but also Norway, and chests also appeared in his comparisons9.

Russia has active cultural and economic ties with Norway and Denmark. From the Icelandic sagas it is known that the Norwegians made trade trips to the Russian lands, mainly to Novgorod already in the X – early XII centuries. The border between states was officially recognized in 1326. Trade relations became permanent in the 16th century, the Norwegians came to Kola, Kegor, the Pechengsky monastery, Kholmogory. In the next century Arkhangelsk became the main trade center. Russian merchants also traveled to Norway, and they were not only Murmansk residents, but also dwellers of Podvinya, Kargopol, and the villages of the White Sea. The active communication led to the existence of parallels in many areas of culture, in particular, in the construction of wooden churches, woodcarving and book illustrations. For a long time, not only cultural and trade, but also political ties have been established between the countries.

Russian-Danish relations were no less ancient. The first information about the Danes is found in the Novgorod First Chronicle of the years 1130 and 1134. Nevertheless, ties between countries originated much earlier than the XII century, as evidenced by the data of numismatics and linguistics10. They reached significant development in the 15th century. The first Russian-Danish treaty was signed in 1493, which was of an anti-Swedish character. Danish merchants, in comparison with merchants of other countries, received great privileges: they could trade throughout the territory of Russia, they were given two trading yards. Even the Danish government was directly involved in trade. The economic rapprochement between Russia and Denmark had a specific reason. They wanted to get rid of the mediation of the Hansa11. The role of political partnership increased markedly in the 18th century.

So for centuries there have been strong ties between Russia and Scandinavia, including different areas of culture. The production of chest and caskets, which existed in these states for a long time, was no exception12.

Parallels can be traced already at the level of the etymology of words denoting certain chest products, as well as objects associated with them. For example, the Old Russian word «korsta» – «coffin», which has been preserved in some northern dialects, is close not only to the Germanic «kasten» («box»), which goes back to the Latin word «cista» («box»)13, but also the swedish word «kista» («chest»). The Russian word «chest» comes from the ancient Swedish «lárr» («chest», «drawer») and «lår» («box, chest»)14. According to other sources, the ancient swedish word itself could be borrowed from the Old Russian15. One way or another, the etymology of the word «chest» testifies to the existence from an early period of Russian-Swedish ties in the use of chest products, and possibly their production.

In June 2004, in Pskov, in one of the burials of the Viking Age, the remains of a wooden casket were discovered, which dates back to the 10th century16. On its round lid, between four triangular iron plates, there were bronze plates decorated in the Jelling style17. An iron ring with a diameter of 4.5 cm is attached in the middle of the lid. The lid is bordered by a rim of nails with wide heads. The lock was placed in the wall of the casket. Its analogue were found in Birka18.The considered casket testifies to one of the ways of getting Scandinavian products to Russia and their existence here since ancient times. This provided an opportunity for direct interaction between Russian and Scandinavian traditions in the production of chest and caskets. Let us consider several of their types19.

In museums of Russia there are items, which are called trunks («baul» in Russian). They were taken along on trips. The trunks are of different sizes. Their body is cylindrical, the lid is on top, on the sides there are small curly handles. As a rule, such items were covered with the skins of sea animals, upholstered with slotted iron strips. In front there was a curly iron plate that protected the key hole. The collection of the Department of folk art of the Russian Museum contains a similar item dating from the 18th century20. Five iron strips with a cut ornamentation consisting of a row of «cucumbers» are attached on its oak base, in front there is a cast hinge.

Many similar items made in Sweden and called chests («kista») can be found in museums in different cities of this country, for example, in Kalmar21. As an example, we give a product at the inventory number KLM 2146622. It has a cylindrical shape and is covered with seal skin. Thin iron strips are nailed on top, wide at the edges. There is no slit ornament on them. In the middle there is a square metal plate. There is no lock. This chest has wrought iron handle on each side. The inside of the chest is upholstered with unpainted linen. Similar things were done in Denmark23.

Together with the complete similarity of the designs of Russian and Scandinavian items, there are obvious differences in decoration. The slotted ornament of Russian trunks consists of ornamental motifs borrowed from oriental fabrics that came to Russia in abundance in the 17th century. There is no cut ornament on swedish items (with the exception of a few dates included in the strips; these can be considered as a kind of decoration). The ornamentation is focused on wide strips that are placed along the edges of the products: they are given a wave-like shape24.

Another striking example is the so-called «podgolovnik». There is a «podgolovnik» in the collection of department of folk art25, manufactured in 1750. This item is of considerable size (34x55x42), the outer surfaces of which are upholstered with leather and smooth iron strips, located «in a cage». Inside each «cell» there are slotted rosettes with mica lining. In the corners of the lid and the top wall there are slotted strips in the form of triangles. On the face of the lock, in a zigzag frame, the inscription is engraved: «1750 September 23rd day of srk ivan chyupyatov». There are forged handles on the side walls. Inside «podgolovnik» there are twelve compartments, eight of which are with drawers. The podgolovnik, probably of Kholmogory origin, is notable for its durability, solidity and reliability. The symmetry of the ornament, its clarity, «calculated» contribute to this impression. The main thing for the master was the direct purpose of the product as a repository of valuable things and documents. The general artistic solution of the podgolovnik is characterized by masculine roughness, severity, against the background of which all the ornamental delights look like optional additions.

Norwegian «podgolovnik»26 dates back to 1751. It has a similar design, but slightly different proportions (actually another wall serves as its base). The lid rises with iron curly hinges, on the sides there are simple cast handles. The chest has several shelves from the inside (not preserved). The surfaces of the product (except for the back and side ones) are divided into rectangular segments, in each of which there is a picturesque composition consisting of images of bouquets framed blue. They are painted in the fast, improvised manner of Norwegian wood painting. The rest of the surfaces are painted red. On the edges of the lid there are inscriptions in white paint: «Ek Ols Domis (?) Ann 1751». Perhaps this item served as a travel chest for some official.

Of particular note are products of other proportions, in their shape resembling a chest of drawers, in other words, these are podgolovniks placed on the back wall. The collection of the department of folk art contains such a «chest of drawers» (dates back to the 18th century)27. Its front and side walls are upholstered with slotted iron plates with a floral ornament consisting of intertwining curls (background is brown velvet). The bottom and back side are reinforced with solid iron plates. There are several shelves and drawers inside the product, the lower part can be pulled out.

Norwegian products of this type (for example, items from the collection of the Vasa Museum28) have identical proportions, structure, they also use a combination of wood and iron. But they are almost devoid of ornaments, their main characteristics are reliability and durability.

Comparing all these items made their differences clear. They are similar only in design and shape, in all other respects they are different. This is due to the fact that chests called «podgolovnik» were made in different historical and cultural settings for different customers. The shape and design of this type of products have undergone changes not depending on the place and time of production, but the purpose and decoration.

Mention should also be made of caskets. One of their types, which must be addressed, are things of a rectangular shape, upholstered with stripes of checked pattern and equipped with curly slit overlays. Russian products of this kind were traditional products of the masters of Veliky Ustyug. For example, a box from the department of folk art of the State Russian Museum29 was made by master Plisov in 1834. It has rounded corners and a slightly convex lid. On the sides there are two forged handles. The box is painted with light green paint and upholstered with checked iron strips. On the front and back walls there are three slotted masks with figured leaves in the center (the middle one is the largest). In the center of the lid there is a slotted plate with a flap, in the corners there are slotted plates of the same type. There is a pattern of rounded curls on a foil background. The inscription on the lock says «City of Ustyug master Plisov 1834».

It is appropriate to name another box from the same collection (dates back to the 19th century)30. It is rectangular and has a flat lid. All surfaces are upholstered with thin checked metal strips, under which blue velvet is placed. In the corners of the lid there are square slotted plates with floral ornaments, in the center there is a round plate. A similar ornament, consisting of intertwining curls, adorns the mask. The lid has a staple handle and a ring. Many items of this kind were done in Ustyug, as evidenced not only by the collection of the Department of folk art, but also by other museums31.

In the collection of the Museum of the city of Kalmar there is a similar box, which dates back to the 17th century32. It is rectangular in shape, the lid is slightly convex and the corners are rounded. The box is upholstered with checked iron strips. A handle is attached to the lid, at the corners of the lid there are slotted plates with an ornament resembling a clover leaf (under them there are colored lining). On the front side there are three locks with figured faces, the middle one being larger than the lateral ones. From the inside, the box is upholstered with green cloth. The inner edges of the walls are colored green.

Despite the similarity of design, decoration technique and general artistic solution, there are fundamental differences in the style of the works. The boxes vary in content. If the first one is directly related to traditional art, then the second one is belonging to «high» professional art, it is within the framework of the dominant artistic style. The inner essence of the first item is the fabulousness, cheerfulness of folk art, which makes it akin to the paintings of the Russian North, the second is the striving for monarchical solemnity and grandeur.

Another type of box, widespread in Russia and Scandinavia, were small items with a sloping lid. They were usually used while traveling. The traditional principle of covering a wooden base with another material is realized in a box from the collection of the Russian Museum33. In this case it is figured tin strips and mica. The pattern of stripes framing the lid and walls is made in the form of a wavy garland of curls with trefoils between two ribbed strips. On the lid and on the front wall there are two identical corrugated strips. There are pictures cut out of paper with images of everyday scenes under the mica. Inside the box is pasted over with green paper with a floral pattern. The artistic solution of the thing has a bright, decorative character. It should be noted that many things were decorated in a similar way in Russia in the 17th – 18th centuries, for example, outdoor lamps. Casket from the Kalmar Museum34 is much larger than Russian in size, but has the same proportions (dates back to the 17th century). It is covered with leather and upholstered with five iron cut strips. On the front side there is a figured face and an internal lock. On the sides there are small forged handles. From the inside, the box is upholstered with coarse fabric. As in the previous case, despite the similarity of forms and proportions, the works differ significantly from each other in essence. The first product is in the context of the development of Russian applied art of the 17th – 18th centuries and reflects the Russian understanding of decorativeness with its multicolor, brilliance, combinations of various materials, and an apparent preference for geometric floral ornaments. The second box in its artistic solution is close to the Swedish chests of the same period, it has little in common with a similar Russian thing in terms of decoration.

Examples of coincidences of the forms of Russian and Scandinavian chest products can be continued. For example, the so-called «sarcophagus» chests, common almost throughout Europe, remained outside the scope of the article35. They were also made in Russia36 and in Scandinavian countries37. Without going into a detailed comparison, it should be noted that things are similar in design, but differ in proportions and wall thickness.

It is necessary to briefly touch upon the topic of materials and techniques used by Russian and Scandinavian craftsmen. Both of them used wood (usually oak and pine), iron, leather, skins of sea animals38, objects were often upholstered with fabrics from the inside. However, on Russian products, unlike Scandinavian ones, mica is found. Both in Russia and in Scandinavia, forging, casting, slotting, engraving, and similar methods of joining the wooden parts of chest products were used. At the same time, the Scandinavians never turned to techniques similar to those adopted in Russia: «frozen» tin, chromolithography on tin sheets39, polished iron40.

The parallels between Russian and Scandinavian products are not accidental, which is also recognized by specialists from Scandinavia41. On some types of chest products, there is observed a close intertwining of artistic traditions that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish Russian items from Scandinavian ones. The analysis of works leads to the conclusion that in the chest production of Russia and Scandinavia there was not just a process of mutual influence, but the related artistic thinking of the masters.

Anyway, it is not worth putting an equal sign between them: despite of the similarity of designs, sizes and purposes, there are differences between Russian and Scandinavian products. They were made in different artistic environments and they are fruits of different cultures.

In this context, the question of influences loses its acuteness. It doesn’t matter who influenced whom. It is only necessary to state that both Russian and Scandinavian artisans were participants of the pan-European cultural process. Therefore, it is more important not to register certain influences, but to analyze the environment, conditions, circumstances that ensured the penetration of creative impulses. The kinship is often a consequence of the commonality of motives and plots common in the art of different countries, as well as the similarity of production methods, the use of the same sources. It is also necessary to take into account the stage-by-stage correspondence in the development of different cultures. According to sensible words by Tatyana Passek, the similarity does not mean anything until the «genetic history» of a particular ornamental scheme is traced, i.e. «Work cannot be carried out without a „paleontological“ analysis, without the use of a genetic approach to phenomena, as to natural stage-by-stage formulations of a single process of society development»42.

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Three points should be noted as a conclusion.

1. The presence of parallels in Russian and Scandinavian chest production is natural. This is a consequence of centuries-old cultural ties between Russia, on the one hand, and Sweden, Norway and Denmark, on the other. The production of chests is part of a deep and extensive cultural exchange that has existed between these countries since ancient times.

2. Despite of the obvious analogies, Russian and Scandinavian chests have their own artistic style, since they were created on different cultural grounds.

3. A comparative study of Russian and Scandinavian chest products is of particular relevance. Only one aspect needs to be pointed out. Just as researchers of wooden architecture suggest using ancient Scandinavian buildings to reconstruct the external appearance of Old Russia43, with regard to the production of chest and boxes, the same can be proposed.