Читать книгу Ice Adhesion - Группа авторов - Страница 4
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Оглавление1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 A geologic timeline of the Earth shows the symbiotic relationship...Figure 1.2 A timeline of human activities which have aided in our understand...Figure 1.3 (a) The Classical Nucleation Theory models a growing embryo of cl...Figure 1.4 Heterogeneous nucleation of an embryo growing on a foreign solid ...Figure 1.5 Geometric factors, ƒ, for heterogeneous ice nucleation free energ...Figure 1.6 Rendering of the hypothetically best surface morphology to delay ...Figure 1.7 (a) Water droplet on a theoretically perfectly flat, chemically h...Figure 1.8 (a) The degree to which water will penetrate into the pores of a ...Figure 1.9 (a) The pore walls of a superhydrophobic substrate become intrins...Figure 1.10 The failure mode of the ice-solid bond is said to be: (a) adhesi...Figure 1.11 (a) A real superhydrophobic surface will undergo some degree of ...Figure 1.12 (a) Twill Dutch-weave and (b) plain Dutch-weave pattern stainles...Figure 1.13 (a) Surfaces are never completely flat, but rather possess asper...
2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 The dependence of the Gibbs free energy change ΔG on the nucleus ...Figure 2.2 Snapshots (at 6ms interval) showing the ice nucleation of a 5µl d...Figure 2.3 Schematic showing the volume and surface area of a spherical cap ...Figure 2.4 (a) Schematic showing an axisymmetric water nucleus on the micros...Figure 2.5 (a1-a3) ESEM images showing the random water nucleation on a supe...Figure 2.6 ESEM snapshots showing the condensed droplets in (a) Cassie-Baxte...Figure 2.7 (a) ESEM snapshots showing the selective water nucleation on the ...Figure 2.8 Schematic showing the heterogeneous nucleation of an ice embryo w...Figure 2.9 (a) Free energy barriers for nucleation in a system of hard spher...Figure 2.10 (a) Schematics of the thermal resistance networks of partial-Wen...Figure 2.11 Critical droplet freezing radius as a function of the substrate ...
3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Ice nucleolus on a subzero substrate and the involved interfaces ...Figure 3.2 The surface factor plotted versus different values of x and m for...Figure 3.3 The surface factor plotted versus different values of x and m for...Figure 3.4 Different coatings are exposed to water droplets which shows the ...Figure 3.5 Geometry of droplet at later stages of ice formation and after co...Figure 3.6 Ice growth on a sub-zero substrate when the droplet is in an envi...Figure 3.7 The experimental data for ice growth rate are compared to theoret...Figure 3.8 Ice growth on a sub-zero substrate when the droplet is in an envi...Figure 3.9 The plot of Eq. (3.40) which shows ice growth rate in an environm...Figure 3.10 Ice bridging phenomenon for two similar liquid droplets with dif...
4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Conceptual overview of condensation frosting on a chilled substra...Figure 4.2 (a) Theoretical nucleation pressure required to form a new embryo...Figure 4.3 (a) Top-down microscopy of an inter-droplet ice bridge growing fr...Figure 4.4 Depending on which droplet is larger: (a) the frozen droplet, or ...Figure 4.5 (a) When a supercooled liquid droplet first freezes on a thermall...Figure 4.6 (a) Schematic of the vapor flow around a frozen droplet and surro...Figure 4.7 (a) An array of 10 µm wide hydrophilic stripes were chemically pa...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Photo of frost buildup in a freezer taken by Dev Benjamin availab...Figure 5.2 The stages of condensation droplet growth on a surface prior to f...Figure 5.3 Growth of droplets (a) soon after the drops become visible and (b...Figure 5.4 Tracking of the growth of a droplet over time on a silicon surfac...Figure 5.5 Tracking of the growth of a droplet over time on a nanopillar str...Figure 5.6 Number of droplets for the fields of view of both surfaces during...Figure 5.7 The maximum surface temperature required for freezing to occur in...Figure 5.8 Condensation prior to freezing on the 25IL biphilic surface at 26...Figure 5.9 Condensed droplets on a nanopillar surface with a surface tempera...Figure 5.10 Regeneration of droplets on a silicon surface at 40% RH (a) 6 mi...Figure 5.11 Droplets on a silicon surface at 278 K (left) and the histogram ...Figure 5.12 Condensation frosting for nanopillar, plain silicon, and Teflon©...Figure 5.13 Freezing front propagation on a 25IL biphilic surface at 75% rel...Figure 5.14 Droplets on a nanoporous surface before freezing (left) and the ...Figure 5.15 Freezing front propagation on a silicon surface where freezing f...Figure 5.16 Variation of bridging time, t(s), with bridging length, l (μm), ...Figure 5.17 Effect of the experimental ratio of the droplet diameter of froz...Figure 5.18 Photographs (top) of the three stages of condensation frosting o...Figure 5.19 Ice structures that form during the growth stage of condensation...
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Conceptual overview of the different types of defrosting techniqu...Figure 6.2 (a,b) As a frost layer melts it becomes less porous, resulting in...Figure 6.3 (a) Effect of the heat exchanger’s static contact angle on its ma...Figure 6.4 (a-c) Images of a micro-grooved brass sample used for defrosting ...Figure 6.5 (a) Condensation frosting and subsequent defrosting of bare alumi...Figure 6.6 Various modes of dynamic defrosting from nanostructured superhydr...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Profile of a liquid drop on a solid surface.Figure 7.2 Average ice adhesion strengths measured at -10°C on bare steel an...Figure 7.3 Change of ice adhesion strength with the change of surface free e...Figure 7.4 Change of ice adhesion strength with the change of surface free e...Figure 7.5 The relationship between water contact angle and ice adhesion str...
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Applied force on the ice attached to the icephobic coating.Figure 8.2 The reported values of ice adhesion according to Eq. (8.7) [6].Figure 8.3 Schematic of centrifugal force method for ice adhesion measuremen...Figure 8.4 Experimental setup for ice adhesion measurement using the centrif...Figure 8.5 Rotational shear test method.Figure 8.6 Schematic of shear stress method for ice adhesion measurementFigure 8.7 Schematic of tensile force method for ice adhesion measurement [6...Figure 8.8 Experimental setup used for ice adhesion measurement with the ten...Figure 8.9 Schematic of standard setup for ice adhesion measurement [6].
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Water drop on a solid surface and definition of the contact angle...Figure 9.2 Thermodynamic work of ice adhesion normalized by the surface tens...Figure 9.3 Cassie-Baxter description of the contact angle θCB on a supe...Figure 9.4 Relation between shear strength of the ice-solid interface and wa...Figure 9.5 Snapshots of frost formation on initially dry microstructured sup...Figure 9.6 Dry growth of rime ice (left) and wet growth of glaze ice (right)...Figure 9.7 Adhesion shear strength of ice on aluminium vs. temperature, meas...Figure 9.8 Adhesion shear strength of ice vs. temperature, measured on a num...Figure 9.9 Linear-log representation of ice adhesion strength as a function ...Figure 9.10 Trend of cost, complexity, and capacity to process many surfaces...Figure 9.11 Ice adhesion tests placed in order of increasing realism.Figure 9.12 Forces applied and resulting stresses at the interface between i...Figure 9.13 Generic illustration of a pusher ice adhesion test rig according...Figure 9.14 Schematic of an icing wind tunnel-mounted pusher ice adhesion te...Figure 9.15 Example of the pressure recording during a pusher shear adhesion...Figure 9.16 Early shear ice adhesion test rig according to description in [3...Figure 9.17 Double lap shear test according to ASTM standard and described i...Figure 9.18 Illustration of a lap-shear test rig according to description in...Figure 9.19 Generic illustration of the centrifugal ice adhesion test accord...Figure 9.20 Illustration of the spinning ice adhesion test rig mounted insid...Figure 9.21 Early version of the spinning rotor ice adhesion test rig accord...Figure 9.22 Spinning rotor blade ice adhesion test rig according to descript...Figure 9.23 Euler-Bernoulli cantilever beam model used for the vibrating can...Figure 9.24 Generic illustration of the vibrating cantilever ice adhesion te...Figure 9.25 Geometric parameters relevant for cantilever ice adhesion streng...Figure 9.26 Example of a strain gauge signal recorded during a vibrating can...Figure 9.27 Illustration of the vibrating cantilever ice adhesion measuremen...Figure 9.28 Tensile test with an inlaid force transmission probe according t...Figure 9.29 Generic illustration of the Mode I ice adhesion test according t...Figure 9.30 Illustration of the different possible ice fractures during the ...
10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Example of precipitation ice. Picture also published in [26].Figure 10.2 Example of in-cloud ice. Picture also published in [26].Figure 10.3 Example of bulk water ice. Picture also published in [26].Figure 10.4 Measured ice adhesion strength for each performed test for the t...Figure 10.5 Schematic overview of centrifugal adhesion test (CAT).Figure 10.6 Schematic overview of the horizontal shear test, also called pus...Figure 10.7 Adhesion Reduction Factors (ARFs) from AMIL CAT tests, where ice...Figure 10.8 Illustrations of different realistic ice sample sizes in a horiz...Figure 10.9 Dependence of ice adhesion strength on the probe distance from t...Figure 10.10 Picture of precipitation ice created at AMIL at test temperatur...Figure 10.11 Picture of bulk water ice created at AMIL at test temperature o...Figure 10.12 Picture of bulk water ice created at NTNU at test temperature o...Figure 10.13 AMIL centrifuge adhesion test apparatus. Picture also published...Figure 10.14 NTNU vertical shear test apparatus. Picture also published in [...Figure 10.15 Measured ice adhesion strength values from the interlaboratory ...Figure 10.16 Selected elements and parameters of proposed experimental proto...Figure 10.17 Schematic drawing of the proposed reference test for increased ...
11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Formation of rime ice (a) and glazing (b) on a flat surface that...Figure 11.2 Temperature distribution of droplet freezing on the hierarchical...Figure 11.3 The evolution of frost layer growth on the cold surface. (a) Tw Figure 11.4 Plates exposed to WSET precipitation test for 120 min. Plates tr...Figure 11.5 Time-evolution of the temperature distributions over the airfoil...Figure 11.6 Model set in the icing wind tunnel and schematic illustration of...Figure 11.7 Thermal image of the AC-DBD plasma varying with different operat...Figure 11.8 (a) Schematic of the procedure used to test the ice adhesion str...Figure 11.9 (a) Representative force–displacement curves obtained during the...Figure 11.10 (a) Variation in the ice adhesion strength measured at −15 °C o...Figure 11.11 (a-d) Snapshots of nucleus growth on smooth graphene. The gray ...Figure 11.12 (a) Heating profile of graphene-based glass composite at variou...Figure 11.13 Chemical structure of a typical antifreeze glycoprotein (AFGP);...Figure 11.14 Optical micrographs of PBS (left) and PMAMGlc220 (right) at a c...Figure 11.15 The ABP-Cn-AFPG124Y coating fortified by trehalose inhibited ic...Figure 11.16 Ice nucleation on the NIBF and IBF surfaces. (A) Upper images s...
12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Schematics of droplet wettability on solid surfaces. (a) Smooth ...Figure 12.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of four different supe...Figure 12.3 A custom-made closed-loop icing wind tunnel. (a) The main body o...Figure 12.4 (a-d) Original images captured by CCD camera in icing wind tunne...Figure 12.5 Correlation between the mean gray scale value (the coverage of i...Figure 12.6 (a-c) Schematics of the depinning motion of the microscopic cont...Figure 12.7 (a) Schematic of the visualization of the dynamic contact line a...Figure 12.8 Comparison of the analytical model (lines) to the experimental v...Figure 12.9 Experimental setup for the measurement of the shear adhesion for...Figure 12.10 Correlation between the adhesion force of ice measured under st...
13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Examples of ice buildup: (a) obstructing an HVAC system, (b) aff...Figure 13.2 (a) Example hydrophilic wetting (left) and hydrophobic wetting (...Figure 13.3 Microtexture structures achieved by laser irradiation on (a) tit...Figure 13.4 Examples of wetting on smooth, Wenzel, and Cassie-Baxter surface...Figure 13.5 The advancing (θA) and receding (θR) contact angles as a result ...Figure 13.6 A graph of the change in CAH and ice adhesion pressure for surfa...Figure 13.7 An example of an ice adhesion measurement using (a) a pushing pr...Figure 13.8 The accumulation of stress at the edge of the ice and soft subst...Figure 13.9 Chemically etched aluminum, with coatings of increasing wt% sili...Figure 13.10 Laser microtextured aluminum, with spaces between laser exposur...Figure 13.11 A schematic showing laser ablation and embossing processes comb...Figure 13.12 (a) laser microtextured aluminum (b) the result of thermal embo...
14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Contact angle of a liquid droplet on a smooth solid surface.Figure 14.2 Schematic illustration representing a solid fraction (ϕ) wh...Figure 14.3 Advancing (θadv) and receding (θrec) contact angles of...Figure 14.4 Summary of possible outcome patterns of drop impacts, reproduced...Figure 14.5 Schematic illustration of a water meniscus penetrating a pore.Figure 14.6 Liquid meniscus penetration and the corresponding droplet reboun...Figure 14.7 Examples of (left) open-cell and (right) closed-cell geometries....Figure 14.8 Wetting factor ( f ) is plotted against the ratio x = Ra / rcr f...Figure 14.9 Activation energy for heterogeneous nucleation initiated at the ...Figure 14.10 Temperature rise of a droplet during the recalescent freezing, ...Figure 14.11 Evaporation and condensation around a droplet during the freezi...Figure 14.12 Propagation of the freezing front by triggering nucleation in t...Figure 14.13 Two sequences of snapshot images of superhydrophobic surfaces t...Figure 14.14 The SEM images depict frost formation inside the micro- and nan...Figure 14.15 Schematic diagram of two drops on a soft (deformable) surface, ...Figure 14.16 Thermodynamic work (WA) required to seperate liquid from solid ...Figure 14.17 Three fracture modes, reproduced from [100].Figure 14.18 Schematics of typical experimental setups used to measure ice a...
15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Janus effect of AFPs. (a) Controlled decoration of solid substra...Figure 15.2 Influence of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) on the heterogeneous ice ...Figure 15.3 Liquid droplet evaporation and ice bridging dynamics. (a) Detail...Figure 15.4 Time-resolved optical microscopic images of ice propagation on (...Figure 15.5 (a) Synthesis of the PAA−DA conjugate and schematic representati...Figure 15.6 (a) Molecular structures of poly(dimethylsiloxane)-poly(ethylene...Figure 15.7 Multifunctional anti-icing hydrogel inspired by nature. (a) Regu...
16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Schematic representation of the simplified abrasion resistance t...Figure 16.2 (a) Schematic representation of ice on a superhydrophobic surfac...Figure 16.3 SEM images of aluminum alloy coated with FAS-17 before (a) and a...
17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Hindered amine light stabilizer structure.Figure 17.2 Structures of (a) poly(propylene glycol) (PPG) and (b) poly(ethy...Figure 17.3 The pattern of crack propagation in a coating upon weathering as...Figure 17.4 Stress, σ, versus strain, ε, curve which shows toughness of a co...
18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 (a) Rime ice forms as the super-cooled water droplets freeze imm...Figure 18.2 Ice accretion around the leading edge of an aircraft wing (Sourc...Figure 18.3 (a) Ice sample formed in a static icing condition which has a st...Figure 18.4 Ice structures formed on the surface of an airfoil/wing model un...Figure 18.5 Three categories of icephobic coatings/surfaces: (a) lotus-leaf-...Figure 18.6 Schematics to show the sacrificial nature of surfaces with liqui...Figure 18.7 (a). Schematics of a series of soft materials with different wor...Figure 18.8 Experimental setup to measure the ice adhesion strength on diffe...Figure 18.9 Schematic of the experimental setup for the high-speed spray tun...Figure 18.10 Velocity profiles of the impacting water droplets measured usin...Figure 18.11 Measurement results of the erosion durability test on icephobic...Figure 18.12 Schematic of the Icing Research Tunnel available at Iowa State ...Figure 18.13 The ice accretion processes over the surfaces of airfoil/wing m...Figure 18.14 Comparison of the anti-/de-icing performances of different meth...
19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Types of the ice accreted on an aircraft in the absence of anti-...Figure 19.2 Residual (or inter-cycle) ice remaining on leading edge of an ai...Figure 19.3 Effect of icing temperature on the drag coefficient of the NLF(1...Figure 19.4 Effect of icing time on the drag coefficient of the MS(1)-317 ai...Figure 19.5 Effect of drop diameter on the iced drag coefficient of the MS(1...Figure 19.6 Lift coefficient CL as a function of angle of attack α for a bus...Figure 19.7 Typical effect of ice accretion on aircraft lift coefficient CL ...Figure 19.8 Pitching moment coefficient Cm as a function of angle of attack ...Figure 19.9 Hinge moment values for the Twin Otter aircraft accreting wing i...Figure 19.10 Illustration of the formation of laminar separation bubble and ...Figure 19.11 Sketches of the separation bubble structures behind the ice hor...Figure 19.12 Boundary-layer profiles for IPS failure glaze ice (a) and inter...Figure 19.13 Boundary-layer profile measurements for ice accreted at chordwi...Figure 19.14 Effects of glaze ice accretions on the elevator deflection angl...Figure 19.15 Responses of altitude H (left above) and rolling angle Φ (right...Figure 19.16 Effects of tail ice on the static longitudinal stability deriva...Figure 19.17 Unsteady hinge moment values for the Twin Otter aircraft accret...Figure 19.18 The lift-to-angle-of-attack derivative CLα during selectiv...Figure 19.19 The envelope protection system being developed at the Universit...Figure 19.20 Responses of (a) angle of attack α, (b) pitch angle, (c) refere...Figure 19.21 The components and flowchart of the control reconfiguration sys...Figure 19.22 Pitch rate (a) and pitch angle (b) responses for nominal and re...
20 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Cloud Classification [12].Figure 20.2 Icing Clouds [14, 15].Figure 20.3 Continuous Maximum (Stratiform Clouds) Atmospheric Icing (liquid...Figure 20.4 Intermittent Maximum (Cumuliform Clouds) Atmospheric Icing (LWC ...Figure 20.5 Natural Probabilities for LWC Averages at Altitudes up to 2500 f...Figure 20.6 Definition of local collection efficiency [6].Figure 20.7 Rime Ice [21].Figure 20.8 Glaze Ice [22].Figure 20.9 Roughness Observed in Experiments [23, 26].Figure 20.10 Effect of Roughness [27, 28].Figure 20.11 Scallop Icing in Experiment [29].Figure 20.12 Droplet Deformation and Breakup [34].Figure 20.13 Schematic Representation of Droplet-Wall Interaction Mechanisms...Figure 20.14 Inflight icing code configuration.Figure 20.15 Schematic view of the panel method.Figure 20.16 Schematic view of the spherical bead geometry.Figure 20.17 Schematic view of Lagrangian droplet trajectory.Figure 20.18 Droplet density contour of NACA 0012 (α = 4°, c = 0.5334m,...Figure 20.19 Schematic view of Messinger model control volume.Figure 20.20 Compatibility relation for shallow water icing model (SWIM).Figure 20.21 Schematic view of ice growth module [10].Figure 20.22 2D airfoil ice shape prediction compared with NASA IRT [46].Figure 20.23 3D ice shape prediction for DLR-F6 configuration.Figure 20.24 2D airfoil section ice shape prediction for DLR-F6 configuratio...Figure 20.25 Droplet trajectories around full rotorcraft configuration (abov...Figure 20.26 Collection efficiencies and ice accretion shapes for various ad...Figure 20.27 Thermal Ice Protection System (IPS) concept [57, 58, 63].Figure 20.28 Electro-mechanical IPS concept [59].Figure 20.29 Fluid IPS: de-/anti-icing fluids on the ground [60].Figure 20.30 Hybrid IPS: thermal and mechanical (TMEDS) [62].Figure 20.31 Heat balance in Al-Khalil’s simulation [61].Figure 20.32 Simulation results of Al-Khalil [61].Figure 20.33 Film heat balance in Croce’s simulation [63].Figure 20.34 Simulation results of Croce [64] : temperature field and stream...
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