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1 Chapter 11.1 Map of Mesoamerica1.2 Distribution of languages within Mesoamerica at the time of the Spanish conquest

2 Chapter 22.1 Maps of Olman. Top: locations of sites mentioned in the text and coverage of archaeological surveys. Dashed line indicates the approximate extent of Olman. Bottom: geological map with physiographic provinces labeled. Base maps downloaded from the Mapa Digital de México V 6.3.0, INEGI2.2 Physical landscapes of Olman. (a) Western Tabasco swamps viewed from La Venta. (b) Alluvial plain northeast of the San Lorenzo plateau (slight rise in the background). (c) View across Tuxtlas piedmont to the extinct Tuxtlas Mountains volcano of Cerro el Vigía. (d) Cinder cones in the central Tuxtlas Mountains, looking northward across Lake Catemaco. (e) Cerro Manatí viewed from Macayal. (f) Ancient sand dunes near the coast to the west of the Tuxtla Mountains2.3 Early Formative settlement patterns in three regions of Olman2.4 Map of Mesoamerica, showing exchange of products to and from Gulf Olmec sites2.5 LiDAR imagery of Tres Zapotes in high (dark gray) and low (light gray) resolution. Gray line indicates extent of Tres Zapotes Archaeological Survey (Spanish acronym RATZ)2.6 Middle Formative settlement patterns in three regions of Olman2.7 Macayal phase offering at El Manatí2.8 Some examples of Olmec monumental sculpture. (a) Colossal head (Tres Zapotes Monument A). (b) Tabletop altar–throne (La Venta Monument 4). (c) Full-round sculpture (El Azuzul) “twins.” (d) Stela (La Venta Stela 2)2.9 Plans of civic–ceremonial precincts of Formative urban centers. Clockwise from upper left: San Lorenzo, La Venta, Tres Zapotes2.10 Clockwise from left: San Martín Pajapan Monument, La Venta Monument 44, Lerdo Monument2.11 Tres Zapotes Stela A

3 Chapter 33.1 An Olmec object with image: a jade earspool excavated at La Venta with incised lines suggesting a human profile face flanked by two profile zoomorphic heads3.2 Figurine fragment, Playa de los Muertos style, Ulua Valley3.3 Figurine fragment depicting a monkey, Playa de los Muertos style, Ulua Valley3.4 Fragments of incised vessels from Puerto Escondido, Honduras. Upper left: St. Andrews cross. Upper right: Star and hand–paw–wing motif. Bottom: Anthropomorphic profile faces3.5 An axe blade excavated at La Venta with incised lines suggesting a human face and hands3.6 Polished stone figurine excavated at La Venta with incised lines on the body interpreted as maize cobs3.7 Drawing of images on front and sides of La Venta altar or throne3.8 Image of crocodilian creature with rain clouds, Chalcatzingo, Morelos3.9 Image of woman laying hands on standing object, Chalcatzingo, Morelos

4 Chapter 44.1 Teotihuacan map by the Teotihuacan Mapping Project4.2 Teotihuacan chronology table4.3 View from the central axis of the Avenue of the Dead toward the Moon Pyramid (north), the summit of which exactly coincides with the top of Cerro Gordo4.4 Plan of the central zone of ancient Teotihuacan with measurements in meters and TMU. The distance between the Sun Pyramid and the Citadel apparently reflects a large cycle combined with 8 years of solar calendar and five cycles of Venus almanac (365 × 8 = 584 × 5 = 2920 days). Double of the distances between two monuments coincide with 8 years if one year is calculated as 20 × 18 (360) without 5 extra days that was Mesoamerican standard counting system, (20 × 18 × 4) × 2 = 28804.5 Reconstructed seven building stages (Edificio in Spanish) disclosed by tunnel excavations at the Moon Pyramid4.6 Plan of Burial 6 found in the Moon Pyramid. Bodies of sacrificed people were reconstructed based on human bones4.7 Plan and Profile of ancient tunnel created under the Sun Pyramid4.8 Plan of Offering 2 found in a shallow pit excavated on subsoil in the Sun Pyramid4.9 Plan of the Citadel and the Great Compound made from LiDAR imagery4.10 General plan of reconstructed body positions of the FSP burials. The size of graves enlarged out of proportion to the pyramid First category: male elite group (with greenstone ornaments). Second category: male subelites (with shell ornaments). Third category: male military group. Fourth category: female (except 1 in Burial 14) with shell ornaments4.11 Drawing of the facade of the Feathered Serpent Pyramid in the Citadel

5 Chapter 55.1 The location of different compounds cited in the text in the map drawn by René Millon and Manzanilla’s hypothesis of the four districts of Teotihuacan from where the four possible co-rulers came from5.2 The Tlamimilolpa compound5.3 The Xolalpan compound5.4 The Tetitla compound5.5 The Yayahuala compound5.6 The Oztoyahualco 15B:N6W3 compound, excavated by Linda R. Manzanilla5.7 The Oztoyahualco 15B theater-type censer related to burial 85.8 The Teopancazco neighborhood center with its functional sectors5.9 The Xalla palatial compound excavated by Linda R. Manzanilla5.10 The Xalla palace with its functional sectors

6 Chapter 66.1 The Copán Main Group in the Copán Valley, Honduras6.2 Map of the Cerén village, El Salvador6.3 The distribution of houses in the urban zone around the Main Group and in the rural hinterlands in the Copán Valley6.4 Jade workshop in the patio of Strucutre M10-4 at Cancuen, Guatemala6.5 A Copán urban courtyard

7 Chapter 77.1 Map of the Maya area, showing places mentioned in the text7.2 Paired views of (a) raised fields and (b) Annie Hunter’s drawing of splayed crocodile body on Copan Altar T. (a) From Turner and Harrison (1981) and used with permission. (b) From Maudslay (1889–1902: vol. 1, plate 95)7.3 A restoration drawing of Copan in Honduras by Tatiana Proskouriakoff7.4 Reconstructed view of Twin Pyramid Complex (4E-4), Tikal, Guatemala. The complex is oriented to the cardinal directions with the twin pyramids oriented to the east and west7.5 Map of eastern part of Copan Valley pocket, highlighting groups 8L-10, 8L-12, the Principal Group7.6 Three of seven paired groups across the Copan valley. (a) Ostuman neighborhood. (b) Mesa de Petapilla neighborhood. (c) Salamar neighborhood showing a closer view of 8L-10, to the north, and 8L-12, to the south7.7 Schematic plans of Maya civic–ceremonial centers of (a) Xunantunich, (b) Naranjo, and (c) Calakmul, illustrating a pronounced north–south axis7.8 Idealized reconstruction drawing of farmsteads set in agricultural terraces at Chan7.9 Schematic plan of Chan’s Central Group. The eastern and western buildings (Strs. 5 and 7) in this group are pyramidal structures forming a paired east–west temple complexThe southern building (Str. 6) is a corbel vaulted administrative building. The northern building (Str. 2) is the residence of leading families and is flanked to the west by two small buildings (Strs. 3 and 4) that are ancillary structures

8 Chapter 88.1 Map of the Valley of Oaxaca showing sites mentioned in the text8.2 Mound 1 at San José Mogote. (a) Photograph of Mound 1. (b) View of Mound 1 with Monte Albán in the background8.3 Photograph of Monument 3 from San José Mogote showing a victim of human sacrifice8.4 Panorama of the Main Plaza of Monte Albán8.5 Plan of the Main Plaza at Monte Albán showing architectural features mention in the text8.6 Photograph of in situ orthostats from Building L- sub with horizontal figures depicting ancestors and vertical ones depicting young adults performing autosacrifice8.7 Hypothetical reconstruction by Javier Urcid of Building L-sub at Monte Albán representing an age-graded organization shown performing autosacrifice8.8 Carved slabs reset in Building J. (a) Example of a slab depicting a revered ancestor. (b) Monument J-41

9 Chapter 99.1 Map of Oaxaca showing the locations of archaeological sites, towns, and regions mentioned in the text9.2 Map of the Nejapa region showing the rivers, surveyed area, and archaeological sites mentioned in the text9.3 Multiple layers of red-painted stucco floor visible in the excavations of a Postclassic period house in Colonia San Martín9.4 Rooms built into one of two cliff face rock shelters at Cerro del Convento9.5 Defensive wall constructed at the narrowest point of the ridgeline at Los Picachos9.6 The ball court at El Sitial

10 Chapter 1010.1 Typical codex scenes, Codex Añute (Selden) page 810.2 The visit of Lord 8 Deer and Lady 6 Monkey to the temple of Lady 9 Grass, Codex Tonindeye (Nuttall) page 4410.3 Schematic overview of the reconstruction process of Codex Yoho Yuchi. Hyperspectral imaging collects a stack of images, in which for each pixel a full spectrum is known. These images are processed and compared to allow the reconstruction of the outlines of figures

11 Chapter 1111.1 Location of Mayapan and other places mentioned in the text. Dark gray-shaded zones reflect Roys’s estimate of polity boundaries of the Mayapan confederacy, which became independent units after the city’s fall11.2 Map of walled Mayapan settlement, showing the location of the site center as well as outlying ceremonial groups within the city, including the largest of these, the Itzmal Ch’en group11.3 Mural from Tulum Structure 5, portraying Postclassic Maya elites. Many Mayapan buildings were painted with similar murals of which only isolated patches preserve11.4 Map of Mayapan’s monumental center11.5 Examples of human portraiture from Mayapan. (a) Stone sculpture. (b) Effigy vase. (c) Figurines. (d) Effigy censer. (e) Effigy urn11.6 Mayapan’s principle pyramid, the Temple of Kukulcan (left), and the Main Plaza facing southwest, and a view of the same plaza facing northwest (from the Round Temple) featuring Temple Q-80 (with three doorways) and burial shaft temple Q-58. Note columns of colonnaded halls in both photos11.7 Location of outlying ceremonial groups beyond Mayapan’s city wall. These minor centers provided focal nodes for peripheral communities of Greater Mayapan

12 Chapter 1212.1 Burials forming four genealogical episodes in the household history on Structure 122 (after Bolnick and Overholtzer 2017: Figure 6)12.2 House plan and genealogy in patios, Xochimilco, Mexico City, 1653. AGN Intestados, vol. 301, exp. 2, f. 21612.3 Burial of infant female in cooking jar, with upturned Aztec II Black-on-Orange dish serving as a lid, within the Structure 122 ithualli around 1330 ce (Burial 3)12.4 Aztec II dish buried with infant female12.5 Burial of a young adult male within the Structure 122 ithualli around 1435 ce (Burial 12)12.6 Flattening of the posterior cranial vault of the young adult male, side and top views12.7 Quartz lip plug interred with the young adult male, profile and front views12.8 Burial of a middle-aged female within the Structure 122 ithualli around 1470 (Burial 15)12.9 Black-on-Red dish interred with the middle-aged female12.10 Turbina corymbosa leaves and seeds

13 Chapter 1313.1 The island of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco13.2 Archaeological remains of the Main Precinct in Mexico City downtown; the Templo Mayor is at the center13.3 Diverse forms of Mexica sculpture. (a) Fusion water and fire deities (Nappatecuhtli) covered with polychrome13.4 Sculptures from the master chronological sequence. (a) Calendric date Reed. (b) The oldest sculpture found in Templo Mayor(c) Lizard as calendric date. (d) Bench relief depicting Tezcatlipoca and a political leader. (e) Captive crying. (f) Jar from Offering 48(g) Fire God Xiuhtecuhtli. (h) The Stone of Tizoc. (i) Stone box, tepetlacalli. (j) Rollout of pedestal with the Fire God. (k) Golden eagle. (l) Monumental bird (after (Barrera Rodríguez and López 2008). (m) New deity in the Aztec pantheon13.5 The Earth goddess Tlaltecuhtli constellation. (a) On the bottom of Coatlicue. (b) Bottom of Yolotlicue. (c) Bottom of an altar. (d) On a plumed serpent. (e) Piece displaying a date. (f) Altar from the Templo Mayor. (g–i) Artifacts modified on colonial times

14 Chapter 1414.1 Map of modern Mexico City with the black line indicating the island limits in the sixteenth century. The location of the HSJN is indicated by the shaded rectangle, which were uncovered during the construction of the San Juan de Letrán metro station14.2 Sample of clavicle bones indicating the range of robusticity scores for the costoclavicular ligament enthesis (0 = No change, R1 = faint, R2 = moderate, R3 = strong)14.3 Sample of clavicle bones indicating the range of stress lesion scores for the costoclavicular ligament enthesis (S1 = faint, S2 = moderate, S3 = strong)14.4 A rotating scatterplot for the right side of the body based on body mass and the 11 different muscle movement groups for the upper limb with a square indicating individuals in group 1, a circle indicating individuals in group 2, and an X indicating individuals in group 314.5 Line plot of muscle usage for right side cluster groups CR2 and CR3.14.6 Line plot of muscle usage for right side cluster group CR114.7 A rotating scatterplot for the left side of the body based on body mass and the 11 different muscle movement groups for the upper limb with a circle indicating individuals in group 1 and an X indicating individuals in group 214.8 Line plot of muscle usage for left side cluster groups CL1 and CL2387