Читать книгу Engineering Solutions for CO2 Conversion - Группа авторов - Страница 27

The industrial sector was responsible for almost 25% of the CO₂ emissions in 2014. CO₂ is emitted on the fuel combustion, intrinsic reactions and indirectly on the use of electricity. IEA predicted a required reduction on the CO₂ emissions of 3–6 Gt/yr to achieve the 2 degrees scenario (2DS) or B2DS. Although other measures such as increasing energy efficiency, developing new production process, using renewable energy or fuel switching, will reduce CO₂ emissions, still there is a significant amount of CO₂ from the process that can be only reduced through CO₂ capture [20]. To achieve the B2DS, the contribution of CCS is estimated as 23%.

All the available CO₂ capture technologies can be potentially installed in industrial facilities. However, while certain industries would have similar or even more favorable characteristics for the implementation of carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS) compared to power plants, the design of CO₂ capture systems must be tailored for each facility. The heat and energy integration will be site specific and, together with the composition and CO₂ emission stacks, will impact on the optimum capture rate and the CO₂ avoidance cost.

An exhaustive description of the integration of certain CO₂ capture technologies in the cement sector can be found, for example, in Refs. [67, 68]. A large scale chemical absorption system will be installed in the Norcem Brevik facility, after other technologies (solid sorbents and membranes) were tested at smaller scale [6]. Oxyfuel has been included in the Front End Engineering Design (FEED) studies within the European climate research alliance (ECRA) project and the LEILAC project will test the Calix technology (direct separation) [7]. Other technologies, such as chilled ammonia, membrane‐based capture combined with liquefaction, and calcium looping were studied, for example, in the CEMCAP project at modeling scale [69]. Moreover, partial capture configurations for several industries are being studied by the CO2STCAP project [70] and the CLEANKER project will scale up the calcium looping up to a TRL of 7.⁶

The peculiarity of the steelmaking sector is the heterogeneity of production processes that will be more or less dependent on the electricity grid. At large scale, the most significant project is the Al Reyadah in Abu Dhabi, where CO₂ is captured in the steam methane reforming (SMR) for H₂ production to be used in a direct reduction iron (DRI) process. A recent cost review identified promising CO₂ capture solutions for this sector, perhaps at lower TRL and potentially with less accurate cost figures [71]. Other projects are advancing on CO₂ capture technologies applied to the steelmaking sector. For example, the C4U project will test high‐temperature solid sorbents, aiming to reach a TRL of 7 once the demonstration facility is fully operational. Additionally, the STEPWISE project will advance on the testing of the sorption‐ enhanced water gas shift technology, reaching a TRL of 7 once it operates successfully, while the 3D project will test an advanced solvent in a steel mill.⁷

Other sectors such as refining, hydrogen, natural gas, heavy oil, fertilizer productions, and waste‐to‐energy are important and are being considered for further study, for example, by the CSLF.