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Оглавление1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Carbon materials and their market value.Figure 1.2 Development of the specific consumption of graphite electrodes.Figure 1.3 Graphite electrode producers and their production capacity (2018)...Figure 1.4 Blast furnace and EAF steel production.Figure 1.5 Graphite electrode. (a) Graphite electrode with crack in the join...Figure 1.6 Carbon electrodes with diameters up to 1400 mm.Figure 1.7 The demand for carbon electrodes.Figure 1.8 Carbon electrode producer and capacity. SGL: Since 2018 COBEX.Figure 1.9 Aluminum electrolysis cell.Figure 1.10 Cathode production by grade.Figure 1.11 Cathode producers and their capacity. SGL: Since 2018 COBEX.Figure 1.12 Increase in cell amperage over the last 70 years.Figure 1.13 Test assembling of a blast furnace lining.Figure 1.14 Hot metal production in blast furnaces.Figure 1.15 Blast furnace diameter.Figure 1.16 Silicon single crystal production.Figure 1.17 Demand for fine‐grained graphite.Figure 1.18 Fine‐grained graphite producer.Figure 1.19 Mechanical properties of carbon fibers.Figure 1.20 Carbon fiber fields of application.Figure 1.21 Carbon fiber demand and capacity.Figure 1.22 Carbon fiber producers and their estimated capacities.Figure 1.23 Energy and power density for different storage systems.Figure 1.24 Expected Li‐ion battery demand.Figure 1.25 Li‐ion anode material producer and their capacity.Figure 1.26 Fuel cell schematics.Figure 1.27 Fuel cell demand distribution by application.Figure 1.28 Gas diffusion layer production capacity.Figure 1.29 Redox flow battery production.Figure 1.30 Production capacities for redox flow batteries.Figure 1.31 Mechanical strength from carbon fibers to nanotubes.
2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Relative abundance of elements in the Earth’s upper crust.Figure 2.2 Allotropic modifications of the element carbon.Figure 2.3 The four most important allotropic forms of the solid element car...Figure 2.4 Bonding hybridization and corresponding crystal structure of carb...Figure 2.5 CC bonds and the formation of hydrocarbons and extension to carb...Figure 2.6 Hydrogen content of various hydrocarbons and heat‐treated residue...Figure 2.7 Phase diagram of carbon.
3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Siemens‐Plania factory “Schwarze Bude” at Ratibor (1928) [19,20]....Figure 3.2 Manufacture of lampblack in China (wood engraving 2630 BC).
4 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 (a) Lattice of the cubic diamond and the hexagonal graphite cryst...Figure 5.2 X‐ray diffraction pattern of non‐graphitic and graphitic carbon m...Figure 5.3 (a) High‐resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR‐TEM) bri...Figure 5.4 AFM image of graphite. The hexagonal carbon rings are visible and...Figure 5.5 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) picture of a flake natural gra...Figure 5.6 Classification of different forms of carbon according to IUPAC no...Figure 5.7 Gaseous, liquid, and solid pyrolysis and their products.Figure 5.8 Optical micrograph of carbonaceous mesophase from heated anthrace...Figure 5.9 Carbonaceous mesophase structure (a) and mechanism of growth by c...Figure 5.10 Reaction scheme for carbonization and graphitization.Figure 5.11 Structural development of a graphitizable carbon during heat tre...
5 Chapter 6-1-1Figure 6.1.1.1 Production scheme for synthetic carbon and graphite materials...Figure 6.1.1.2 Sources for petroleum and coal‐tar pitch coke.Figure 6.1.1.3 Optical micrographs of petroleum needle coke (a), an anode‐gr...Figure 6.1.1.4 Development of the needle coke CTE [Method, DIN 51909].Figure 6.1.1.5 Various coke types and their usages.Figure 6.1.1.6 Expansion of petroleum and coal‐tar pitch coke‐derived electr...Figure 6.1.1.7 Estimated petroleum and coal‐tar pitch needle coke capacities...Figure 6.1.1.8 World usage of pitch.Figure 6.1.1.9 Global coal‐tar production (CRU).
6 Chapter 6-1-2Figure 6.1.2.1 Area petroleum coke production 2013 and production increase p...Figure 6.1.2.2 Flow sheet of delayed coking. (a) Fractionator. (b) Furnace. ...Figure 6.1.2.3 Photograph of a refining delayed coker complex: furnace, coke...Figure 6.1.2.4 Product yields with thermal conversion processes.Figure 6.1.2.5 Relationship between plant operating conditions and plant yie...Figure 6.1.2.6 Flow sheet of fluid coking. (a) Reactor. (b) Scrubber. (c) Bu...Figure 6.1.2.7 Flow sheet of flexicoking. (a) Reactor. (b) Scrubber. (c) Hea...Figure 6.1.2.8 Schematic of the rotary kiln calciner. (a) Screen. (b) Crushe...Figure 6.1.2.9 Schematic of the rotary hearth calciner. (a) Feed bin. (b) Ro...Figure 6.1.2.10 Using of calcined petroleum coke 2014.Figure 6.1.2.11 World market profile for petroleum coke 2010.
7 Chapter 6-1-3Figure 6.1.3.1 Process flow of Koppers process.Figure 6.1.3.2 Process flow of delayed coking/calcining process. (a) delayed...Figure 6.1.3.3 Variation of the carbon and hydrogen ratio in production step...Figure 6.1.3.4 Changes in calcination ([19] extract). (a) changes of coke cr...
8 Chapter 6-1-4Figure 6.1.4.1Figure 6.1.4.1 Vein graphite crystals, 98% carbon.Figure 6.1.4.2 Graphite flakes, 96% carbon.Figure 6.1.4.3 Graphite family.Figure 6.1.4.4 Open‐pit (surface) mine for natural graphite.Figure 6.1.4.5 Graphite processing [2].Figure 6.1.4.6 Flotation cell.Figure 6.1.4.7 Natural graphite market.Figure 6.1.4.8 Natural graphite grades [7].
9 Chapter 6-1-5Figure 6.1.5.1 Gas chromatogram of a coke‐oven coal tar 22 mm glass capill. ...Figure 6.1.5.2 High‐pressureliquid chromatogram of coal‐tar pitch [3]. Nucle...Figure 6.1.5.3 Processing of coal tar [12].Figure 6.1.5.4 Continuous tar distillation with multiflash system (GfT/Koppe...Figure 6.1.5.5 Continuous tar distillation (Rütgers process). (a) Dehydratio...Figure 6.1.5.6 Direct cooling of coal‐tar pitch (Rütgers pencil‐pitch proces...Figure 6.1.5.7 Flow sheet of a coal‐tar primary distillation with integrated...Figure 6.1.5.8 Processing of liquid products from low‐temperature carbonizat...
10 Chapter 6-2Figure 6.2.1 Extrusion of a green electrode for electric arc furnace applica...Figure 6.2.2 Volume change during baking.Figure 6.2.3 Chamber of a ring furnace filled with green electrodes.Figure 6.2.4 Closed ring furnace (schematically). (a) Unloading chamber. (b)...Figure 6.2.5 Ring furnace, heating cycle [46].Figure 6.2.6 Loading of a car‐bottom furnace.Figure 6.2.7 Changing of interlayer spacing during graphitization.Figure 6.2.8 Temperature cycles of the Acheson furnace (a) and Castner furna...Figure 6.2.9 Acheson graphitization (a) and (b) modern lengthwise graphitiza...
11 Chapter 6-4Figure 6.4.1 Flexural strength of graphite materials vs. maximum grain size....Figure 6.4.2 Stress–strain relation of graphite.Figure 6.4.3 Properties of polygranular graphite material vs. temperature (n...Figure 6.4.4 Properties of polygranular carbon material vs. temperature (nor...
12 Chapter 6-5-1Figure 6.5.1.1 Aluminum smelter.Figure 6.5.1.2 Aluminum electrolysis cell.Figure 6.5.1.3 Aluminum potroom.Figure 6.5.1.4 Anode change. (a) Anode butt extraction, (b) bath crust skimm...Figure 6.5.1.5 Anode corner cracking.Figure 6.5.1.6 Severe air burn.Figure 6.5.1.7 Carbon dust floating on the bath.Figure 6.5.1.8 Poor anode butts.Figure 6.5.1.9 Anode with spikes.Figure 6.5.1.10 Anode consumption breakdown.Figure 6.5.1.11 Aluminum production flow sheet.Figure 6.5.1.12 Modern anode production steps.Figure 6.5.1.13 Multi‐deck sizer.Figure 6.5.1.14 Ball race mill.Figure 6.5.1.15 Bag house filter.Figure 6.5.1.16 Fines scale.Figure 6.5.1.17Figure 6.5.1.17 Dry aggregate preheater.Figure 6.5.1.18Figure 6.5.1.18 Paste kneader.Figure 6.5.1.19Figure 6.5.1.19 Paste cooler.Figure 6.5.1.20Figure 6.5.1.20 Anode block vibrator.Figure 6.5.1.21 Green anode cooling.Figure 6.5.1.22 Anode baking furnace.Figure 6.5.1.23 Furnace inner structure.Figure 6.5.1.24 Fire equipment.Figure 6.5.1.25 Firing system.Figure 6.5.1.26 Temperature, draft, and oxygen development in the first fire...Figure 6.5.1.27 Regenerative thermal oxidizer.Figure 6.5.1.28 Slotting machine.Figure 6.5.1.29Figure 6.5.1.29 Butts before cleaning.Figure 6.5.1.30Figure 6.5.1.30 Anode cover cleaner.Figure 6.5.1.31Figure 6.5.1.31 Butts after shot blasting.Figure 6.5.1.32 Iron casting.
13 Chapter 6-5-2Figure 6.5.2.1 Aluminum electrolysis cell.Figure 6.5.2.2 Cathode blocks.Figure 6.5.2.3 Cathode wear phenomena.Figure 6.5.2.4 Drained cell configuration (example, schematic).Figure 6.5.2.5 Examples of a surface‐profiled cathode bottom. (a) Longitudin...
14 Chapter 6-5-3Figure 6.5.3.1 The era of iron and steel: this scheme gives a rough overview...Figure 6.5.3.2 Reproduction of a Celtic bloomery furnace for iron production...Figure 6.5.3.3 Blast furnace. Iron ore, coke, and additives are charged at t...Figure 6.5.3.4 Steel production routes today.Figure 6.5.3.5 Typical EAF setup (typical vessel diameter 6–8 m).Figure 6.5.3.6 Typical operation cycle of an EAF.Figure 6.5.3.7 Specific input–output balance of typical EAF plants [].Figure 6.5.3.8 Dependence of typical tap to tap times of an EAF cycle on the...Figure 6.5.3.9 Basic EAF furnace setups (left AC furnace, right DC furnace) ...Figure 6.5.3.10 Production shares by region (before and after the financial ...Figure 6.5.3.11 Steelmaking capacity shares by region (% of total capacity) ...Figure 6.5.3.12 Pig iron and DRI for EAF steel production.Figure 6.5.3.13 Crude steel production.Figure 6.5.3.14 (a) A GE is a cylinder made of graphite with selectable leng...Figure 6.5.3.15 Dependence of EAF current and required electrode diameter.Figure 6.5.3.16 Overview about basic consumption mechanisms of graphite elec...Figure 6.5.3.17 Overview about major development steps of the EAF technology...Figure 6.5.3.18 Production costs in EAF steelmaking: besides raw material co...Figure 6.5.3.19 Electricity price versus installed solar and wind capacity. ...Figure 6.5.3.20 Discontinuous consumption images: (a) cracks and (b) SEL.Figure 6.5.3.21 Available GE capacity by GE producer in t/year.
15 Chapter 6-5-5Figure. 6.5.5.1 Assembling a large diameter carbon electrodes.Figure. 6.5.5.2 Dimensions of carbon electrodes. (a) Length: 2000–3500 mm. (...Figure. 6.5.5.3 Joint systems. (a) Conical joint (male/female) and (b) joint...
16 Chapter 6-5-6Figure 6.5.6.1 The two types of self‐baking electrodes [8].Figure 6.5.6.2 The process of self‐baking electrodes [8].
17 Chapter 6-5-7Figure 6.5.7.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger.Figure 6.5.7.2 Drilled blocks of block graphite heat exchangers.Figure 6.5.7.3 Different designs of graphite plates.Figure 6.5.7.4 Plate heat exchangers.Figure 6.5.7.5 Tunnel tray section of an absorption column made from DIABON®...Figure 6.5.7.6 Cross section of a bottom‐fired HCl synthesis unit – all inte...Figure 6.5.7.7 DIABON® volute case of a graphite pump.
18 Chapter 6-5-8Figure. 6.5.8.1 Crucible arrangement used in the production of ultrahigh‐pur...Figure. 6.5.8.2 Schematic illustration showing the structure of a horizontal...Figure 6.5.8.3 (a) Sketch illustrating the principle of electrical discharge...Figure. 6.5.8.4 Sketch showing the principle of pressure sintering.Figure. 6.5.8.5 Carbon brushes.Figure. 6.5.8.6 Current collectors.
19 Chapter 6-5-9Figure. 6.5.9.1 Polycrystalline structure of artificial graphite [5].Figure. 6.5.9.2 Graphite single crystal structure.Figure. 6.5.9.3 Radiation damage spikes in graphite.Figure. 6.5.9.4 Graphite crystallite radiation damage.Figure 6.5.9.5 (a) Micrograph of unirradiated Gilsonite graphite [10]. (b) M...Figure. 6.5.9.6 Changes of physical properties due to fast neutron irradiati...Figure. 6.5.9.7 Thermal conductivity of unirradiated graphite vs. measuring ...Figure. 6.5.9.8 Dimensional changes of ATR‐2E graphite irradiated at 550 °C....Figure. 6.5.9.9 Dimensional changes of ATR‐2E graphite irradiated at 500 °C....
20 Chapter 6-5-10Figure 6.5.10.1 Schematic drawing of a graphite lattice (a) and a first‐stag...Figure 6.5.10.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of natural gr...Figure 6.5.10.3 In‐plane and through‐plane electrical resistivity (a) and el...Figure 6.5.10.4 Examples for EG‐based flat gaskets and packing glands.Figure 6.5.10.5 Electrical conductivity of EG and natural graphite (NG) fill...
21 Chapter 6-5-11Figure. 6.5.11.1 Laboratory equipment made of glass‐like carbon.
22 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Typical construction of (a) zinc carbon cells and (b) alkaline ma...Figure 7.2 Working principle of a lead acid battery (the arrow directions in...Figure 7.3 Electron probe microanalysis of different regions of cycled negat...Figure 7.4 Working principle of a Li‐ion battery.Figure 7.5 Basic structural unit of a Li‐ion cell with electrodes, separator...Figure 7.6 Application of carbon and graphite materials in Li‐ion batteries ...Figure 7.7 Evolution of discharge capacities of typical graphitizable and no...Figure 7.8 Characteristic charge/discharge potential curve of graphite and a...Figure 7.9 Lithium storage in (a) in perfectly graphitized graphite and (b) ...Figure 7.10 Scanning electron micrographs of coke before and after graphitiz...Figure 7.11 Reversible capacity as function of graphitization degree.Figure 7.12 The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). (a) Electrode covered wi...Figure 7.13 Coulombic efficiency as a function of BET specific surface area....Figure 7.14 Li intercalation (a) in the presence of an effective SEI and (b,...Figure 7.15 First cycle potential curves of raw coke (blue), of as‐graphitiz...Figure 7.16 Further material design aspects. (a) Particle size and rate capa...Figure 7.17 Characteristic charge/discharge potential curve of hard carbon a...Figure 7.18 Overview on anode materials that are used in commercial batterie...Figure 7.19 Li‐ion battery Anode Material Market. MT, metric tonnes.Figure 7.20 Comparison of the charge/discharge potential profiles of synthet...Figure 7.21 Typical commercial anode materials for Li‐ion batteries: (a) sph...Figure 7.22 Manufacturing of some amorphous carbons. (a) Hard carbons. (b) S...Figure 7.23 Manufacturing of graphitized mesocarbon microbeads.Figure 7.24 Manufacturing of natural graphite.Figure 7.25 Spheroidization of natural graphite. SEM images of (a) flake‐typ...Figure 7.26 Manufacturing of synthetic graphites. (a) Block graphitization. ...Figure 7.27 Reversible and irreversible capacities of some carbon nanomateri...Figure 7.28 Typical conductive additives for Li‐ion batteries: (a) carbon bl...Figure 7.29 The electrochemical double layer according to the Helmholtz mode...Figure 7.30 Working principle of electrochemical double‐layer capacitors. (a...Figure 7.31 Discharge voltage curve of an ideal capacitor.Figure 7.32 Charge storage in pores of different diameters.Figure 7.33 Discharge capacitance (as a function of the specific surface are...Figure 7.34 Specific capacitance as function of the specific surface area. (...Figure 7.35 Synthesis of activated carbons for applications in electrochemic...Figure 7.36 Coconut shell‐derived activated carbon (at different magnificati...Figure 7.37 Basic principle of a redox flow battery.Figure 7.38 Flow‐through and flow‐by electrodes.Figure 7.39 Manufacturing concepts of bipolar plates for redox flow batterie...Figure 7.40 Sigracet® bipolar plates for redox flow batteries. Graphite‐comp...Figure 7.41 Manufacturing routes for carbon felts.Figure 7.42 Optical micrographs of (a, b) Sigracell® carbon felts and SEM im...Figure 7.43 Reticulated vitreous carbon manufacturing.Figure 7.44 Micrographs of RVC foams. Source: Friedrich et al. 2004 [131] an...Figure 7.45 Structure of a PEMFC stack and single cell (exploded view).Figure 7.46 Injection‐molded carbon–polymer composite plate (a) and flexible...Figure 7.47 Manufacturing routes for GDLs and GDEs.Figure 7.48 Reel‐to‐reel processing of carbon fiber‐based gas diffusion laye...Figure 7.49 Manufacturing of gas diffusion layer substrates.Figure 7.50 Micrographs of different GDL backings.Figure 7.51 Pore size distribution of a typical MPL‐coated GDL obtained by m...Figure 7.52 Three‐phase boundary of a PEMFC catalyst layer (anode).
23 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Different types of defects [11]. (a) Stone–Wales, (b) single vaca...Figure 8.2 Typical TPD profiles of CNTs.Figure 8.3 Surface functional groups of carbon materials.Figure 8.4 Au(III) species as a function of pH.Figure 8.5 Determine the PZC of CNTs from zeta potential as a function of pH...Figure 8.6 Schematic presentations of interactions between the active sites ...Figure 8.7 Schematic picture for the stabilization of Ag nanoparticles with ...Figure 8.8 Schematic picture for reduction of metal–surfactant complex to pr...Figure 8.9 Schematic drawings of EB DH process catalyzed by UDDs (a). Compar...Figure 8.10 Dependence of EB consumption rate and styrene selectivity on the...Figure 8.11 In situ O1s XPS of o‐CNTs and phosphate modified o‐CNTs (P‐o‐CNT...Figure 8.12 Selective titration reactions of oxygen functionalities on o‐CNT...Figure 8.13 Comparison of the catalytic activity (EB conversion rate) on o‐C...Figure 8.14 Schematic drawings of nanocarbon‐catalyzed EB ODH reactions thro...Figure 8.15 EB ODH rates as a function of reaction temperature (a), oxygen p...Figure 8.16 Reaction pathways and energy barrier for butane ODH reactions on...Figure 8.17 Reaction pathways for the selective oxidation of acroleins to co...Figure 8.18 Comparison of catalytic activity for various carbon catalysts in...Figure 8.19 Hydrochlorination performance of NCNT catalyst: TEM image of NCN...Figure 8.20 Schematic drawings of the synthesis of SiC granule (a): SiC@N‐C ...Figure 8.21 Schematic drawings of selective oxidation of C6H12 in solvent ca...Figure 8.22 Reaction route for reduction of nitrobenzene catalyzed by carbon...
24 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Schematic model of activated carbon.Figure 9.2 Schematic pore diameter distributions of carbonaceous adsorbents....Figure 9.3 Pressure drop of molded activated carbon with different particle ...Figure 9.4 Pore size distribution of different activated carbons. —— Gas‐ph...Figure 9.5 Characterization of different raw materials. Figure 9.6 Shaft furnace.Figure 9.7 Rotary kiln for steam‐activation process. (a) Steam. (b) Gas. (c)...Figure 9.8 Multiple‐hearth furnace. (a) Raw material silo. (b) Inlet. (c) Bu...Figure 9.9 Fluidized‐bed furnace. (a) Raw material silo. (b) Inlet. (c) Comb...Figure 9.10 Flow sheet for production of pelletized activated carbon. (a) Cr...Figure 9.11 Production steps of formed activated carbon. Figure 9.12 Gas‐ and liquid‐phase applications of carbonaceous adsorbents.Figure 9.13 Gas‐phase applications of carbonaceous adsorbents.Figure 9.14 Linear adsorption isotherm for toluene. Figure 9.15 Flow sheet of a solvent recovery unit. (a1) Adsorber 1. (a2) Ads...Figure 9.16 Temperature diagram for the carbon bed of a solvent recovery uni...Figure 9.17 Drinking water treatment with powdered and granular activated ca...
25 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Scanning electron microscopy image of two carbon black aggregate...Figure 10.2 Carbon blacks of different primary particle sizes and specific s...Figure 10.3Figure 10.3 Particle distribution curves for the carbon blacks of...Figure 10.4Figure 10.4 Furnace blacks of different aggregation degrees.Figure 10.5 Phase‐contrast electron micrograph of a carbon black aggregate....Figure 10.6 SEM image of a graphitized carbon black.Figure 10.7 Phase‐contrast electron micrograph of graphitized carbon black....Figure 10.8 Phase‐contrast micrograph of an inversion black.Figure 10.9 Scanning tunneling micrograph of N234.Figure 10.10 Scanning tunneling micrograph of an inversion carbon black.Figure 10.11 Mean particle sizes of different carbon blacks. 11 nm: gas blac...Figure 10.12 Mean particle sizes and typical applications of various carbon ...Figure 10.13 Electron micrograph of the carbon black Printex®55. Printex 55 ...Figure 10.14 Particle size distribution diagram.Figure 10.15 Relative particle frequency vs. the ratio di/d50 for various fu...Figure 10.16 Relative primary particle frequency vs. the ratio di/d50 for ca...Figure 10.17 Transmission electron micrograph of acetylene black.Figure 10.18 TEM images of the furnace blacks N347 (a) and N326 (b) in powde...Figure 10.19 MY value vs. primary particle size.Figure 10.20 Surface oxides on carbon black. The dotted lines indicate that ...Figure 10.21 Furnace black process. (a) Furnace black reactor, (b) heat exch...Figure 10.22 Furnace black reactors. (A) Restrictor ring reactor, (B) ventur...Figure 10.23 Vertical reactor for manufacturing semireinforcing blacks. (a) ...Figure 10.24 Typical energy balance for the manufacture of a reinforcing bla...Figure 10.25 Pelleting machine.Figure 10.26 Furnace black process.Figure 10.27 Degussa gas black process. (a) Oil evaporator, (b) burner, (c) ...Figure 10.28 Lampblack process. (a) Vessel filled with feedstock, (b) conic...Figure 10.29 Thermal black process. (a) Thermal black reactor, (b) quench to...Figure 10.30 Equipment for the oxidative aftertreatment of carbon black in a...Figure 10.31 Adsorbed nitrogen volume Va vs. the statistical layer thickness...Figure 10.32 Aggregate area vs. DBP absorption.Figure 10.33 Void volume of N550 depending on the pressure.Figure 10.34 Application areas of carbon blacks and shares of total consumpt...Figure 10.35 Global capacity and consumption of carbon black.Figure 10.36 Development of carbon black production in different regions.
26 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 The history of commercial carbon fibers [].Figure 11.2 The market penetration and price development of carbon fibers.Figure 11.3 Graphitic carbon layers with sp2 hybridization. (A) Graphite: he...Figure 11.4b11.4aFigure 11.4b Stagnation in enhancement of carbon fibre prop...Figure 11.4 Principal calculation of mechanical properties based on a quantu...Figure 11.5 Specific tensile modulus (Young's modulus divided by density) of...Figure 11.6 Schematic overview of different carbon fiber types (http://www.c...Figure 11.7 Coalescence of disklike liquid crystals in pitch.Figure 11.8 Manufacture of polyacrylonitrile fibers [46]. Wet spinning, lowe...Figure 11.9 (a) Melt spinning process. (b) Solvent spinning process. (c) Dry...Figure 11.10 FESEM images of the two different morphologies of PAN fibrils (...Figure 11.11 Schematic model of the fibril structures of PAN fibers and the ...Figure 11.12 Color change of polyacrylonitrile during stabilization reaction...Figure 11.13 (a) Increase of density of PAN during thermal treatment in air ...Figure 11.14 Mass and heat transport influenced by gas–solid body reactions ...Figure 11.15 (a) Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) (principle). (b) Ex...Figure 11.16 The reaction of stabilization is double or triple of the oxyhyd...Figure 11.17 The chemistry of stabilization and carbonization (simplified) [...Figure 11.18 Elemental composition correlated with the reaction time and sta...Figure 11.19 Exemplary temperature profiles from scientific and patent liter...Figure 11.20 Isothermal/non‐isothermal linear and hyperbolic temperature pro...Figure 11.21 Target density of stabilized PAN after isothermal/non‐isotherma...Figure 11.21Figure 11.21 Target density of 1.40 g/cm3 of stabilized PAN corr...Figure 11.22b11.22a Basic design and cross section of the centrotherm low-pr...Figure 11.23 The shrinkage behavior of PAN in air up to 340 °C [70].Figure 11.24 The shrinkage behavior of PAN with 6% MA and 2% ITA for differe...Figure 11.25 Correlation of shrinkage and heat flow measurement [66].Figure 11.26 Equilibrium state between stretching entanglement and entropic ...Figure 11.27 Molecular models as basis for shrinkage prediction in fiber axi...Figure 11.28 Elongation of the polymer chain overcompensating the reaction s...Figure 11.29 Structural model of PAN fibers.Figure 11.30 Elastic behavior of PAN fibers with 6% MA and 2% ITA during sta...Figure 11.31 Process control of PAN fibers during stabilization (stretching/...Figure 11.32 Carbon fiber process (schematically) [51].Figure 11.33 Carbonization furnace at SGL Technic Ltd. [51].Figure 11.34 Temperature profile in carbonization furnace.Figure 11.35 Maximum C‐fiber yield correlated with fiber density after stabi...Figure 11.36 Maximal C‐fiber yield correlated with residence time at differe...Figure 11.37 Tensile strength after different stabilization treatments. (a) ...Figure 11.38 Shrinkage during carbonization as indicator for a sufficient st...Figure 11.39 Density after carbonization as indicator for a sufficient stabi...Figure 11.40 The effect of oxygen uptake during stabilization on the strengt...Figure 11.41 Effects of heat post‐treatment of carbon fibers (PAN + 6% MA + ...Figure 11.42 Oxide complexes on surface‐treated carbon fibers and their affi...Figure 11.43 Gases (CO2, CO) liberated during thermal desorption of surface‐...Figure 11.44 Amount of surface oxides formed by thermal, wet, and anodic sur...Figure 11.45 Thermal oxidation rates (Arrhenius plots) of HM‐ and HT‐type ca...Figure 11.46 Specific strength and specific modulus of various commercial ca...Figure 11.47 Influence of gauge length at test samples (carbon fibers/SiC fi...Figure 11.48 Influence of fiber diameter on tensile strength of commercial c...Figure 11.49 High‐resolution TEM of highly graphitized carbon structure [95]...Figure 11.50 TEM bright‐field images (cut perpendicular to the fiber axis) [...Figure 11.51 Young's modulus of various types of carbon fibers correlated wi...Figure 11.52 Mean interlayer distances c/2 of various commercial carbon fibe...Figure 11.53 Effect of high‐temperature heat treatment on the ultrastructure...Figure 11.54 Lattice defects in carbon fibers (schematically).Figure 11.55 Morphological defects within a carbon fiber structure model [98...Figure 11.56 Structural models of carbon fibers. (a) Two‐dimensional model p...Figure 11.57 Structural development of the graphitic layers within the carbo...Figure 11.58 AFM image of graphite (a). The hexagonal carbon rings and the c...Figure 11.59 Influence of the final heat treatment temperature on the degree...Figure 11.60 LOI values of nonflammable textile fibers[110].Figure 11.61 Thermal stability of PANOX® compared with aramid and carbon fib...Figure 11.62 Fiber elongation behavior of PANOX® [110]..Figure 11.63 Protective clothing based on infusible and inflammable stabiliz...Figure 11.64 Fire‐blocking felts for motor vehicles [109].Figure 11.65 Carbon–carbon aircraft brake disks based on stabilized polyacry...Figure 11.66 400k heavy tows with 50k subtows [109].Figure 11.67 50k heavy tows for production of carbon fiber noncrimped fabric...Figure 11.68 400k heavy tows deposited in boxes [109].Figure 11.69 Cut fibers (a) and milled fibers (b) [109].Figure 11.70 Conductivity of polycarbonate with carbon fiber loading [111]....Figure 11.71 Relative mechanical properties of carbon fiber‐filled polycarbo...Figure 11.72 BMW i8 electrical hybrid sports car [112].Figure 11.73 Brake disk for the Porsche Macan S [117].Figure 11.74 Wind energy farms [118].Figure 11.75 Unidirectional carbon fiber tape fixed with a polyester yarn [1...Figure 11.76 Carbon fiber composites in fuselage and wings [118].Figure 11.77 Carbon fiber composites in snowboards [118].Figure 11.78 Robotic arm made of CFRP [118].Figure 11.79 Carbon‐based knitted Fabric[120].Figure 11.80 Typical properties of epoxy prepreg with SIGRAFIL continuous ca...Figure 11.81 Increase of bending strength for a PA6 matrix with a thermoplas...Figure 11.82 Global demand of carbon fibers in ktons from 2009 to 2021 (est...Figure 11.83 Carbon fiber capacity by manufacturer in ktons (2014) [125]....Figure 11.84 Carbon fiber demand by applications in ktons (2014) [121,125]....Figure 11.85 Primary energy demand for CFRP‐production (duromeric resin) app...
27 Chapter 12-1Figure 12.1.1 Unidirectional and quasi‐isotropic laminates.Figure 12.1.2 The principle of hand lamination. (a) fiber mat, (b) fiber fab...Figure 12.1.3 Various types of weaves. (a) Plain, (b) 2/2 twill, (c) mock le...Figure 12.1.4 Principle of pultrusion and filament winding. (A) Vertical pul...Figure 12.1.5 Lamination of an aerospace component by prepreg technology....Figure 12.1.6 Example of a tow‐placement facility.Figure 12.1.7 Typical vacuum bagging setup for autoclave curing.Figure 12.1.8 Typical autoclave cycle.Figure 12.1.9 Principle of a manufacturing device for non‐crimped fabric pro...Figure 12.1.10 Example of a 3D braiding machine.Figure 12.1.11 Typical profiles realized by 3D braiding.Figure 12.1.12 Robot‐assisted tunnel braider.Figure 12.1.13 Manufacturing of complex profiles by braiding and folding.Figure 12.1.14 Typical embroidery machine and preform examples.Figure 12.1.15 Stitching of basic preforms to realize integrated textile str...Figure 12.1.16 Example of a highly integrated preforms based on stitched bas...Figure 12.1.17 Various single‐side stitching heads.Figure 12.1.18 Fiber geometry of various 3D stitching technologies.Figure 12.1.19 Setup of the vacuum‐assisted process (VAP) for preform inject...Figure 12.1.20 Process chain for manufacturing continuous fiber‐reinforced t...Figure 12.1.21 Impregnation of a woven textile by macro‐ and micro‐impregnat...Figure 12.1.22 Press technologies for manufacturing organic sheets.Figure 12.1.23 Semicontinuous press technology for profile manufacturing.Figure 12.1.24 Thermoforming of organic sheets.Figure 12.1.25 Friction welding of thermoplastic fiber‐reinforced polymer co...Figure 12.1.26 Process description of continuous induction welding.Figure 12.1.27 Combination of forming and joining in one step (tailored blan...Figure 12.1.28 Parts manufactured by hybrid processing of thermoforming and ...Figure 12.1.29 Offline combination of thermoforming and thermoplastic tape p...Figure 12.1.30 Mattheck design model following the example of nature.Figure 12.1.31 Influence of fiber angle on the mechanical performance of com...Figure 12.1.32 Mechanical performance depending on in‐plane fiber orientatio...Figure 12.1.33 Illustration of the major factors influencing the performance...Figure 12.1.34 Crash behavior of a 3D reinforced braided tube.Figure 12.1.35 Some tested crash elements showing the different failure mode...Figure 12.1.36 Cross‐ply laminate (half of the thickness), showing a regular...Figure 12.1.37 Fatigue strength of structural materials relative to their ul...Figure 12.1.38 Development of the use of fiber composites.Figure 12.1.39 Application of composites in the Airbus A380.Figure 12.1.40 Manufacturing of the crash beams of the McLaren Mercedes SLR ...Figure 12.1.41 CFRP layers for high‐performance synchronizer rings in automo...Figure 12.1.42 Wind‐energy economics driven by size.Figure 12.1.43 Performance of various lightweight materials and composites w...Figure 12.1.44 Advantage of CFRP construction elements compared with convent...Figure 12.1.45 (a) KUKA robot with carbon fiber composite arm. (b) CFRP robo...Figure 12.1.46 Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of CFRP as a function ...Figure 12.1.47 (a) CFRP lens mounting and (b) expansion‐free CFRP components...Figure 12.1.48 Examples of CFRP construction elements: (a) CFRP profile made...Figure 12.1.49 CFRP buncher bow for a wire strand machine.Figure 12.1.50 X‐ray transparency of various materials.Figure 12.1.51 X‐ray inspection equipment. (a) C‐ arm system and (b) support...Figure 12.1.52 X‐ray‐transparent head fixation for an operating table.Figure 12.1.53 Robo‐Wrapper for reinforcement of a bridge column with a CFRP...
28 Chapter 12-2Figure 12.2.1 Carbon fiber reinforced carbon: a fracture‐tough ceramic [1]....Figure 12.2.2 Specific mechanical strength as a function of temperature for ...Figure 12.2.3 Multidimensional fiber structures [8].Figure 12.2.4 Specific mechanical strength and stiffness of various fiber ma...Figure 12.2.5 Mechanical strength and elastic modulus as a function of the f...Figure 12.2.6 Influence of graphite additive on the shrinkage behavior of CF...Figure 12.2.7 Pressure dependence of carbon yield for petroleum pitches [4]....Figure 12.2.8 Structure of a pyrolytically deposited carbon coating (typical...Figure 12.2.9 Overview of CFRC manufacturing processes [44].Figure 12.2.10 Equipment for production of solvent‐free phenolic resin prepr...Figure 12.2.11 Mechanical strength of unidirectional CFRC as a function of f...Figure 12.2.12 Curing cycle for the phenolic resin prepreg in the press [50]...Figure 12.2.13 Schematic diagram of a winding machine based on the principle...Figure 12.2.14 Manufacturing a crucible on a five‐axis winding mandrel [44,5...Figure 12.2.15 Schematic of the vacuum bag process [54]. (a) Laminating core...Figure 12.2.16 Vacuum bag component in front of the curing autoclave [44].Figure 12.2.17 A five meter long CFRC mold for superplastic shaping of compo...Figure 12.2.18 A component in the CFRP state with laminated‐on stringers for...Figure 12.2.19 Local reinforcement for the introduction of screw threads [55...Figure 12.2.20 3D net shape fiber structures.Figure 12.2.21 Typical decomposition products in the pyrolysis of phenolic r...Figure 12.2.22 Industrial carbonization ovens for the manufacture of CFRC [1...Figure 12.2.23 Typical impregnation autoclave [5,63].Figure 12.2.24 Light micrograph of carbon fibers with infiltrated pyrocarbon...Figure 12.2.25 Various post‐densification structures with resin, pitch, or p...Figure 12.2.26 Equilibrium concentrations in the C–H system [66].Figure 12.2.27 Fine laminar (a), coarse laminar (b), and isotropic (c) pyroc...Figure 12.2.28 Typical process parameters and thresholds for soot buildup in...Figure 12.2.29 Basic layout of a CVD/CVI process [66]. H heating element. E ...Figure 12.2.30 CVI production plant [74].Figure 12.2.31 Schematic of various principles of chemical vapor infiltratio...Figure 12.2.32 Setup of temperature‐ and pressure‐gradient CVI. (a) Preform ...Figure 12.2.33 Graphitization furnace [44].Figure 12.2.34 Fiber–matrix SEM image. Impregnated carbon in the gap between...Figure 12.2.35 CFRC microstructure with surface‐treated carbon fibers (HTS)....Figure 12.2.36 CFRC microstructure with untreated carbon fibers (HTU): delam...Figure 12.2.37 Unidirectionally reinforced CFRC straps [44].Figure 12.2.38 Dependence of the interlaminar shear strength on bulk density...Figure 12.2.39 Thermal conductivity λ as a function of the temperature ...Figure 12.2.40 Thermal conductivity λ as a function of the temperature for s...Figure 12.2.41 Thermal conductivity λ as a function of temperature for fabri...Figure 12.2.42 Thermal conductivity as a function of the temperature of unid...Figure 12.2.43 Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature for CFRC ma...Figure 12.2.44 Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature for CFRC ma...Figure 12.2.45 Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature of CFRC pro...Figure 12.2.46 Coefficient of thermal expansion as a function of temperature...Figure 12.2.47 Coefficient of thermal expansion as a function of temperature...Figure 12.2.48 Thermal expansion coefficient as a function of temperature fo...Figure 12.2.49 Electrical resistivity as a function of temperature for vario...Figure 12.2.50 Angular dependence of the coefficient of friction μ of u...Figure 12.2.51 Effect of high‐temperature treatment of CFRC on friction coef...Figure 12.2.52 CFRC brake pad for motor racing [130].Figure 12.2.53 Oxidation behavior of CFRC (67 wt% fiber, heat treatment temp...Figure 12.2.54 Oxidation behavior of CFRC for various final heat treatment t...Figure 12.2.55 Isothermal oxidation behavior of CFRC at 650 °C in dry air [1...Figure 12.2.56 Influence of air currents on the oxidation behavior of CFRC a...Figure 12.2.57 Coating system for long‐term oxidation protection of CFRC abo...Figure 12.2.58 Dependence of the interlaminar shear strength of fabric‐reinf...Figure 12.2.59 Force–displacement diagram for a CFRC bending test sample in ...Figure 12.2.60 CFRC fracture mechanics test sample after mode I loading [164...Figure 12.2.61 Compression strength of CFRC according to different standards...Figure 12.2.62 “Elastic moduli” of CFRC under tensile and flexural load, cal...Figure 12.2.63 Values of the tensile and compression strength parallel and p...Figure 12.2.64 Failure body for the Tsai–Wu hypothesisFigure 12.2.65 Longitudinal cracks (fissures) in a loaded CFRC bolt [169].Figure 12.2.66 Comparison of numerically and experimentally obtained elastic...Figure 12.2.67 CFRC pipe test samples in size comparison [161].Figure 12.2.68 Tests conducted on wound CFRC pipe sections [161].Figure 12.2.69 Axial stress along a CFRC tube (outer diameter 324 mm, wall t...Figure 12.2.70 Comparison of the bursting pressure split‐disk tests [161].Figure 12.2.71 CFRC airplane brakes [44].Figure 12.2.72 CFRC expansion nozzle for Hytex engines (manufacturer: SGL Ca...Figure 12.2.73 CFRC nozzle with SiC coating [44].Figure 12.2.74 CFRC test mold for the superplastic deformation of titanium b...Figure 12.2.75 CFRC heating elements [1,44].Figure 12.2.76 CFRC charging rigs [1,44].Figure 12.2.77 CFRC ventilators [1].Figure 12.2.78 CFRC pressing mold for glass manufactured on the basis of car...Figure 12.2.79 CFRC scoop for molten glass [1].Figure 12.2.80 CFRC small parts for the glass industry [1].Figure 12.2.81 CFRC packings for the chemical industry [1,44]. (a) Small siz...Figure 12.2.82 CFRC grate for chemical apparatus [1].Figure 12.2.83 CFRC pipe bend for reactor technology [44].Figure 12.2.84 CFRC tiles for nuclear fusion [1].Figure 12.2.85 CFRC crucible for silicon monocrystal production [44].
29 Chapter 12-3Figure 12.3.1 Schematic overview of the different methods used for the build...Figure 12.3.2 CVI–pyC fiber coating clearly visible on SiC fibers in a SiC/S...Figure 12.3.3 Schematic overview of the manufacture of C/SiC materials via I...Figure 12.3.4 Calculated SiC deposition thickness dependent on the depth of ...Figure 12.3.5 Schematic overview of a I–CVI facility (a).[20]. Experimen...Figure 12.3.6 Schematic overview of the manufacture of C/SiC materials via P...Figure 12.3.7 Schematic overview of the manufacture of C/SiC materials via M...Figure 12.3.8 Schematic overview of industrially used methods for providing ...Figure 12.3.9 Near net shape CFRP preform (≈Ø 330 × 32 mm2) based on short f...Figure 12.3.10 Wet filament wound C/C–SiC nozzle structure (feasibility stud...Figure 12.3.11 Exemplary C/C–SiC structures, manufactured via MI process. Th...Figure 12.3.12 C/C–SiC nose cap with in situ joined Ω‐profiles after silicon...Figure 12.3.13 Schematic overview of the manufacture of short C/C bundles in...Figure 12.3.14 Schematic overview of the production steps for a ventilated C...Figure 12.3.15 Weight‐specific strength of materials as a function of temper...Figure 12.3.16 Schematic illustration of energy absorbing phenomena in CMC (...Figure 12.3.17 SEM of bending samples, showing the typical, quasi‐ductile fr...Figure 12.3.18 Typical microstructures of C fiber reinforced SiC based on 2D...Figure 12.3.19 Typical microstructures of Si melt‐infiltrated C/SiC based on...Figure 12.3.20 Microstructures of MI materials based on randomly oriented sh...Figure 12.3.21 Flexural strength (three‐point bending, DIN EN 658‐3) in depe...Figure 12.3.22 Influence of the fiber content on the flexural strength (thre...Figure 12.3.23 Influence of the fiber orientation to the material properties...Figure 12.3.24 Typical CTE of 2D reinforced C/C–SiC materials parallel and p...Figure 12.3.25 Typical thermal conductivity of 2D reinforced C/C–SiC materia...Figure 12.3.26 Thermal conductivity of short fiber‐based C/C–SiC materials (...Figure 12.3.27 Cross section of a C/C–SiC specimen after thermal treatment i...Figure 12.3.28 Typical application areas for C/SiC and C/C–SiC materials dep...Figure 12.3.29 Nose section of the Buran with nose cap made of C/SiC (top)....Figure 12.3.30 C/SiC and C/C–SiC structures for X38 spacecraft (a, NASA). C/...Figure 12.3.31Figure 12.3.31 Artists view of the IXV experiment (a, ESA) bas...Figure 12.3.32 Faceted TPS structures for the Sharp Edge Flight Experiments ...Figure 12.3.33 C/SiC nozzle extension technology demonstrator (∅ 1330 mm/∅ 4...Figure 12.3.34 Nozzle extension made of C/SiC (∅ 2.2 m; upper part) and C/C ...Figure 12.3.35 Hypersonic demonstration aircrafts X‐51 WaveRider (artist's v...Figure 12.3.36 CAD model of the LCT, showing the telescope assembly (a)....Figure 12.3.37 C/SiC outer flap (430 × 300 × 2 mm3, b), manufactured via I–C...Figure 12.3.38 Thrust vector control (TVC) system of solid propellant rocket...Figure 12.3.39 Short fiber‐based C/SiC brake disk rotor (Ø 380 mm), manufact...Figure 12.3.40 C/C–SiC aftermarket tuning brake disks for motorcycles. Front...Figure 12.3.41 Porsche Ceramic Composite Clutch (PCCC) based on carbon fiber...Figure 12.3.42 Multidisk brake system (b) for the propeller of the A400M (a)...Figure 12.3.43 Emergency brake system of high speed elevators (a, Schindler ...Figure 12.3.44 Schematic view of the crash test facility (a) and lower brake...Figure 12.3.45 Emergency runner system for the Transrapid (a, DLR) in Shangh...
30 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Variety of carbon.Figure 13.2 Publication numbers of nanocarbon‐related papers according to th...Figure 13.3 Electronic structure of graphene. 2D (a) and 3D contour view (b)...Figure 13.4 (a) Low‐ and (b) high‐magnification TEM images of rice husk‐deri...Figure 13.5 Experimental procedures of (a) preparing graphene via the soluti...Figure 13.6 (a) Molecular structure of rhodamine B (RhB). (b) Schematic illu...Figure 13.7 Trends in the number of publications about CNTs and their practi...Figure 13.8 Theoretical way of rolling a graphene sheet (a) in order to obta...Figure 13.9 Structural model and TEM image of peapod‐based DWNTs (a, yellow)...Figure 13.10 Surface and pore structure of DWNT bundle.Figure 13.11 (a) Setup of coin cell used for LIB test. Note that a 2 mm obse...Figure 13.12 Low frequency Raman spectra of a SWNT web (a, b) and a DWNT web...Figure 13.13 (a) N2adsorption isotherms of SWNTs and DWNTs at 77 K. The inse...Figure 13.14 HR‐TEM images of filled CNTs. (a) Mo‐wire@DWNT.(b) S@SWCNT ...Figure 13.15 (a) Cross‐sectional HR‐TEM image of large DWNT bundle and (b) h...Figure 13.16 (a) Low frequency Raman spectra of DWNTs (grown by a CCVD metho...Figure 13.17 Cross‐sectional high‐resolution transmission electron microscop...Figure 13.18 Molecular models showing the effect of intercalated B atoms bet...Figure 13.19 (a) TEM image of DWNT‐peapods. (b) TWNTs obtained by DWNTs‐peap...Figure 13.20 Visual appearances of pure polyimide (a), non‐isolated DWNTs/po...Figure 13.21 (a) UV–visible absorption spectra of DWNTs dispersed in a solut...Figure 13.22 (a, b) TEM images of an individual electrospun nanofiber and (c...Figure 13.23 (a) Photograph of a freestanding, thin, and bendable DWNT/DNA f...Figure 13.24 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the smallest workin...Figure 13.25 (a) FE‐SEM image of pitch‐based carbon fibers, (b) FE‐SEM image...Figure 13.26 (a) Photographs of petroleum exploration setup. (b) Petroleum e...Figure 13.27 Typical SEM images of the (a) carbon black‐ and (b) MWNT‐incorp...Figure 13.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the dye‐printing system for mass ...Figure 13.29 CSCNT composite paint for corrosion protection in deep water. (...Figure 13.30 Schematic structure of lithium‐ion battery device.Figure 13.31 Evaluation of the degree of resiliency (%) of submicron MWNTs (Figure 13.32 (a) SEM image of the LIB anode sheet containing MWNT. (b) Cycli...Figure 13.33 MWNTs (VGCFs) are also becoming important additive to cathode e...Figure 13.34 (a) Cross‐sectional FE‐SEM images of the positive electrode (ca...Figure 13.35 A schematic diagram of the synergetic adsorbents consisting of Figure 13.36 HR‐TEM image of a milled CSCNT at a tilted angle. The inset sho...Figure 13.37 (a) Low‐resolution TEM image of CSCNTs milled for 24 hours. (b,...Figure 13.38 HR‐TEM images of highly dispersed Pt nanoparticles both on the ...Figure 13.39 Comparison of the polarization data for a DMFC in the presence ...Figure 13.40 TEM images of the pristine tubes before (a) and after (c) exfol...Figure 13.41 (a) Molecular model of CSCNT. (b) I–V measurement setup in HR‐T...Figure 13.42 (a–c) SEM images of GNRs at different magnification. Note that ...Figure 13.43 Adsorption isotherms of (a) H2O on GNRs and well‐crystalline CB...Figure 13.44 Transition mechanism of MWNTs after exposure and histopathologi...Figure 13.45 Viability studies of pure carbon‐ and nitrogen‐doped nanotubes ...
