Читать книгу The Digital Transformation of Logistics - Группа авторов - Страница 68

In a study about AM spare part production in consumer electronics, Chekurov and Salmi highlight that only certain components without strict surface requirements can be produced. They concluded that, for example, internal parts inside consumer electronics are compatible with AM where the look and feel is not so critical (Chekurov and Salmi 2017). Other researchers also report issues related to the accuracy of the product, which is depending on the AM machine device mechanism, material, and resolution (Kothman and Faber 2016; Moore et al. 2016). Experts further cite achieving the desired part strength and durability with a current set of material and AM technologies as primary barrier to implement AM (Chiu and Lin 2016; Dwivedi et al. 2017). In addition, problems with process predictability and repeatability result in increased costs due to build failure and quality issues (Baumers et al. 2016). Neely also points out that there might be product safety‐related constraints, considering that while in conventional manufacturing products are tested and certified and factories inspected, in AM the main appeal is the ability to manufacture in dispersed locations (Neely 2016).⁶ Aside from these product‐related bottlenecks, also production‐related ones exist. For instance, a main production‐related restriction is the high cost for implementing AM. This includes high material costs, high machine/equipment costs, high costs for technology acquisition, and high maintenance costs (Baldwin and Lin 2002; Dwivedi et al. 2017). Production speed is criticized for being still too slow, and throughput rates for being too low (Gebler et al. 2014; Baumers et al. 2016; Khorram Niaki and Nonino 2017). This is expedited considering that post‐processing of parts is often required, typically caused by stair‐stepping effects that arise from incrementally placing one layer on top of another or because finishing layers are needed (Ford and Despeisse 2016). Also, based on case study research, Mellor, Hao, and Zhang identified that machine suppliers partly implement restrictions such as which specific powders can be processed – that they typically also offer – or locking down process parameters that hinder R&D practices in the form of process parameters optimization (the machine suppliers offer R&D services that fill this artificially generated gap) (Mellor et al. 2014). Finally, regulation‐related bottlenecks prevail. One big concern is the ambiguous intellectual property (IP) situation. With AM machines becoming more ubiquitous, the traditional forms of IP protection will be significantly challenged (Kurfess and Cass 2014). IP protection in AM is particularly critical considering that while in conventional manufacturing, the copying of a design can be readily traced to a source, in AM there is no need for a specific infrastructure, which renders it difficult to prevent unauthorized replications (Brown et al. 2016). Other challenges include the certification for components (e.g. spare parts) and further liability‐related legal issues, including warranty (Ford and Despeisse 2016; Holmström et al. 2016). This is aggravated by the fact that traditional destructive and nondestructive tests that assess critical product characteristics might not be applicable for parts that are produced with variation by an AM machine or only produced once (Petrick and Simpson 2013). Petrick and Simpson also point out that validation of complex internal geometries equally remains an issue (2013). Considering these limitations, it also remains elusive how processes can be certified (Sirichakwal and Conner 2016). In addition, relying on AM increases the risk for knowledge leaks and product piracy as data is transferred openly and products are possibly manufactured on decentralized manufacturing stations (Bogers et al. 2016; Chekurov et al. 2018). Finally, there is also a military dimension to AM. As guns and high‐capacity magazines for assault weapons could be 3D printed, terrorists could reduce their reliance on supply chains for weapons, increasing the risk for the general population (Garrett 2014). Policy makers could respond with regulation, potentially harming AM business models and value chains.

That some of the advantages and bottlenecks outlined above are contradicting is partly caused by the different technologies and materials that are used under the umbrella of AM. This will be discussed in the next section.