Читать книгу The Handbook of Solitude - Группа авторов - Страница 15

One contextual factor that has received considerable theoretical attention is developmental period (see Coplan, Ooi, et al., 2019, for a recent review). Indeed, researchers have long theorized that the risks associated with solitude might depend on the developmental period studied (e.g., early childhood versus middle childhood versus adolescence). In this regard, the costs of solitude are often assumed to be greater during childhood relative to adolescence and adulthood – given the widely held notion that the young developing child requires a significant amount of positive peer interaction for healthy social, emotional, and social‐cognitive development and well‐being (Rubin et al., 2015). In addition, it is during adolescence that increasing needs for and enjoyment of privacy and solitude are thought to emerge (Larson, 1990). For this reason, it has been posited that some of the negative peer consequences often associated with social withdrawal during childhood, such as peer rejection and peer victimization, may diminish during the adolescent developmental period (Bowker et al., 2016).

However, it has also long been argued that the costs of childhood solitude may accumulate over time and that solitude at any age can foster loneliness and psychological angst, particularly if it is externally imposed. As mentioned previously, social needs are thought to exist in individuals of all ages, with several theories suggesting that psychological well‐being is determined by whether social needs are satisfied. For example, Sullivan (1953) posited that all individuals have social needs, but that with development, the nature of the social needs change (e.g., during early adolescence, needs for intimacy emerge), as well as the type of relationship required to fulfill the needs (e.g., same‐sex chumships or best friendships might satisfy needs for intimacy that emerge in early adolescence). Regardless of the developmental changes, however, Sullivan argued that if social needs were not fulfilled, significant negative self‐system and psychological consequences would ensue. Consistent with these latter ideas are research findings that have identified loneliness, at any age, as one of the strongest risk factors for psychological ill‐being (Erzen & Cikrikci, 2018). That said, there is some indication that effects of loneliness on psychological and physical health and well‐being may be the greatest among the oldest adults, which again suggests that developmental period might matter.

Clearly the debate as to “when” in development solitude might carry the greatest costs is yet to be resolved. Indeed, theoretical speculations in this area have outpaced the empirical work. However, it must also be acknowledged that the very nature of solitary experiences likely change with age. For example, young children may retreat to their rooms, engage in solitary play in the company of peers, or find themselves forced to the periphery of social groups. Although externally imposed solitude might manifest similarly at older ages (e.g., adolescents being forced to hang out alone after school; adults being left out of work luncheons and gatherings), adolescents and adults have greater control over and increased opportunities for self‐selected solitary experiences relative to children. For example, adolescents are sometimes left alone without parental supervision in their homes or are able to take themselves to places of their choosing. Adults can also choose to travel alone, engage in meditative and religious retreats, and can sometimes select relatively solitary occupations and ways to spend their free time. In contrast, there may come a time in the life of an older adult where they are significantly impeded in their ability to actively seek out social contacts. It remains to be seen how these potential differences in agency pertaining to solitude across the life span speak to the relation between solitude and well‐being. Taken together, though, a thorough examination of the positive and negative faces of solitude must be undertaken with a developmental lens.