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Responsive feeding, a derivative of responsive parenting, is based on the principle that feeding young children is bidirectional and guided by toddlers’ internal sense of hunger and satiety. Responsive feeding is embedded in a parenting style that includes both structure and responsivity [23]. The structure refers to caregivers’ establishing routines, with consistent meal patterns, timing, context, food choices, and expected behavior (e.g., eating food, no throwing food). Distractions, such as television and other screens, are removed, and meals are coordinated with others eating to provide appropriate modeling (Fig. 1). Responsivity is guided by the caregiver’s perceptions of the toddler’s characteristics, including size, health, feeding skills, and especially by the toddler’s signals of hunger and satiety. Caregiver responses are prompt, clear, nurturant, and developmentally appropriate. When the toddler signals satiety, the caregiver ends the meal and maintains a pleasant demeanor.

Fig. 2. Food parenting practices: coercive control, structure, and autonomy support [24].

A recent review identified 3 food parenting practices used with young children, including toddlers: coercive control, structure, and autonomy support (Fig. 2) [24]. Coercive control refers to controlling practices, including pressure to eat, threats, and bribes, and using food to control negative emotions. Structure refers to rules and limits, limited/guided choices, monitoring, meal- and snack time routines, modeling, food availability and accessibility, and food preparation. Autonomy support includes facilitating self-feeding, child involvement, and encouragement. The structure and autonomy support constructs are consistent with responsive feeding guidelines.

In spite of global recommendations that responsive feeding be implemented, there is no consensus on measures to be used to measure responsive feeding. A recent review identified 15 instruments developed for children from birth to 2 years of age and 28 for children aged 3–5 years [25]. Only 3 of the 43 instruments showed rigorous validation and reliability testing. Most relied on caregiver report and had not been validated against observations. There is clearly a need for a validated assessment of responsive feeding for toddlers to facilitate communication across investigations and the evaluation of intervention trials.

In summary, toddlerhood is a transitional period that can be both joyful and challenging, as children acquire new skills and assert their autonomy. Feeding is particularly challenging because there are clear expectations for caregivers to ensure that their toddlers receive adequate nutrients. Recently recognized strategies, including baby-led weaning, may facilitate the transition to complementary feeding and the family diet. However, additional research is needed to ensure that infants can feed themselves safely and acquire micro- and macronutrients required. Although neophobia is developmentally normal and typically resolves, it introduces challenges to families and can transition into pickiness. Effective parenting practices include the structure of providing healthy food and age-appropriate settings and opportunities for toddlers to feed themselves. In addition, responsive feeding requires caregivers to read toddlers’ signals and to respond promptly, appropriately, and with nurturance. This pattern ensures that toddlers receive the guidance and nurturant care that is needed to develop healthy feeding behavior and emotional well-being [26].