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1 1 Andrés Bernáldez, Historia de los Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel, in Crónicas de los Reyes de Castilla desde Don Alfonso el Sabio, Hasta los Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1878), III, 668; Journals and Other Documents of Columbus, trans. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Heritage Press, 1963), 226–7.

2 2 Louis Becke and Walter Jeffery, Admiral Philip (London: Fisher & Unwin, 1909), 74–5.

3 3 I shall always be referring to the often fatal variola major smallpox. The mild variola minor did not appear until late in the nineteenth century. Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants, Smallpox in History (University of Chicago Press, 1983), 5–6.

4 4 John Duffy, “Smallpox and the Indians in the American Colonies,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 25 (July–August 1951): 327.

5 5 William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Knopf, 1952), 271.

6 6 Alfred W. Crosby, “Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series 33 (April 1976): 290–1.

7 7 Richard White, Land Use, Environment, and Social Change. The Shaping of Island County, Washington (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980), 26–7; Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, The Chinook Indians, Traders of the Lower Columbia River (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), 80.

8 8 Juan López de Velasco, Geografía y Descripción Universal de las Indias desde el Año de 1571 al de 1574 (Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Fortanet, 1894), 552.

9 9 Thomas Falkner, A Description of Patagonia (Chicago: Armann & Armann, 1935), 98, 102–3, 117; Handbook of South American Indians, ed. Julian H. Steward (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1946–59), VI, 309–10; see also Guillermo Fúrlong, Entre las Pampas de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires: Talleres Gráficos “San Pablo,” 1938), 59.

10 10 Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto, trans. Buckingham Smith (New York: Allerton Book Co., 1922), I, 65, 70–1.

11 11 Charles Creighton, A History of Epidemics in Britain (Cambridge University Press, 1891), I, 585–9; Julian S. Corbett, ed., Papers Relating to the Navy During the Spanish War, 1585–1587 (Navy Records Society, 1898), XI, 26.

12 12 John R. Swanton, Indian Tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and Adjacent Coast of the Gulf of Mexico (Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology, bulletin no. 43, 1911), 39. See also Henry F. Dobyns, Their Number Become Thinned, Native American Population Dynamics in Eastern North America (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), 247–90; George R. Milner, “Epidemic Disease in the Postcontact Southeast: A Reappraisal,” Mid-Continent Journal of Archeology 5 (no. 1, 1980): 39–56. The archeologists are beginning to produce physical evidence that supports the hypothesis of fierce epidemics, swift population decline, and radical cultural change in the Gulf region in the sixteenth century. See Caleb Curren, The Protohistoric Period in Central Alabama (Camden, Ala.: Alabama Tombigbee Regional Commission, 1984), 54, 240, 242.