Читать книгу Diversity in the East-Central European Borderlands - Группа авторов - Страница 35

Amar, T. C. (2015) The Paradox of Ukrainian Lviv: A Borderland City Between Stalinists, Nazis, and Nationalists. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Aroni, S. (1995) Memories of the Holocaust: Kishinev (Chişinău) 1941-1944, Samuel Aroni. University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) International Studies and Overseas Programs (ISOP), January 1995, November 1995 (2nd ed.)

Beelitz, K. and Förster, N. (2006) Die Architektur der Moderne. Breslau / Wrocław. Wrocław: Ernst Wasmuth Verlag Tübingen & Berlin and Via Nova Publishing.

Bińkowska, I. (2004) Breslau. Fotografien aus der Zeit zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen. Wrocław: Via Nova. Also available in Polish: Wrocław. Fotografie z okresu międzywojennego.

Braun, H. (ed.) (2005) Czernowitz. Die Geschichte einer untergangenen Kulturmetropole. Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag.

Brenner, H. (2010) Mein altes Czernowitz. Erinnerungen aus mehr als neun Jahrzehnten 1918-2010. Konstanz: Hartung-Gorre Verlag.

Bric, E. (2017) Istoriia evreev Moldovy. Chişinău: self-published.

Caşu, I. (2011) “The City of Chişinău in the Soviet Era: General Considerations (Oraşul Chişinău în perioadă sovietică: considerati generale” (bilingual text), in S. Rusu (ed.) Chişinău – arta, cercetare în sfera publică. Chişinău: Centrul pentru Arta Contemporană.

Caşu, I. (2010) “Stalinist Terror in Moldavia 1940-1953,” in K. McDermott and M. Stibbe (eds.) Stalinist Terror in Eastern Europe, Elite Purges and Mass Repression. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 39–56.

Chuwis Thau, L. (2012) Hidden. Fairfield, IA: Groundbreaking Press.

Colesnic, Iu. (1997) Chişinău enciclopedie. Chişinău: Museum.

Colesnic, Iu. (2011) Chişinăul din Amintire. Chişinău: Biblioteca Municipală B. P. Hasdeu.

Colesnic, Iu. (2012) Chişinău şi Chişinăuienii. Chişinău: Biblioteca Municipală B. P. Hasdeu.

Colesnic, Iu. (2013) Chişinăul din Inima Noastră. Chişinău: Biblioteca Municipală B. P. Hasdeu.

Colesnic, Iu. (2015) Chişinăul nostru neconoscut. Chişinău: Cartier.

Czaplicka, J. (ed.) (2005) Lviv: A City in the Crosscurrents of Culture. Ukrainian Research Institute, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Davies, N. and Moorhouse, R. (2003) Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European City. London: Pimlico.

Friedman, P. (1945) “Extermination of the Lvov Jews,” in Publication of the Central Jewish Historical Commission of the Central Committee of the Polish Jewry (Łódż) 4: 593 ff. Available at: https://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/lviv/lvi593.html.

Friling, T. (ed.) (2004) International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania. Final Report. Iaşi and Bucureşti: Editura Polirom.

Gangal, B., Nesterov, T. et al. (2010) Centrul istoric al Chişinăului la începtul secolului al XXI-lea. Repertoriul monumentelor de architectură. Chişinău: Editura ARC.

Hausleitner, M. (2005) “Eine wechselvolle Geschichte. Die Bukowina und die Stadt Czernowitz vom 18. Bis zum 20. Jahrhundert,” in Helmut Braun (ed.) Czernowitz. Die Geschichte einer untergegangenen Kultur-metropole. Berlin: Links Verlag, 31–81.

Hofer, A., Leitner, E., and Tscherkes, B. (2010) Львів – Lemberg – Lwów – Lviv - Львов – Leopolis. Handbuch Architektur der Stadt. Wien: Leobersdorf.

Kurtz, R. (1945) “Arkhitekturno-stroitel’nye zadachi vosstanovleniia Kishineva,” Sovetskaia Moldaviia 42 (March).

Kurtz, R, Shoikhet, S. M. and Miselsky, B. M. (1965) “Problema razvitiia i rekonstruktsii Kishineva,” in Opyt proektirovaniia gorodov Ukrainy i Moldavii. Kiev: Budivelnik, 84.

Łagiewski, M. (2010) Wrocławscy żydzi 1850–1944. Wrocław: Muzeum Miejskie Wrocławie.

Levin, N. (1987) The Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917: Paradox of Survival, Volume 1. New York: NYU Press.

Lupaşcu, V (1996) “Chisinăul la 560 ani de la prima atestare documentară,” Literatura şi Arta (Chişinău) 38.

Małachowicz, E. (1976) Stare Miasto we Wrocławiu. Zniszczenie, odbudowa, program. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa.

Masan, O. (2000) “Czernowitz in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart,” in H. Heppner (ed.) Czernowitz. Die Geschichte einer ungewöhnlichen Stadt. Köln, Weimar, Wien: Böhlau Verlag., 11 –44.

Mick, C. (2016) Lemberg, Lwów, L’viv, 1914–1947: Violence and Ethnicity in a Contested City. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.

Mühle, E. (2015) Breslau. Geschichte einer europäischen Metropole. Köln, Weimar, Wien: Böhlau Verlag.

Musteaţa, S. (ed.) (2016) Identitaţile Chişinăului, ediţia a treia. Materialele conferinţei internaţionale Identitaţile Chişinăului, ediţia a treia, 1-2 octombrie 2015, Chişinău. Chişinău: Editura Arc.

Nesterov, T. (2011a) “Arhitectura perioadei interbelice din Chişinău în căutarea identităţii artistice”, in Ş. Rusu (ed.) Chişinău – arta, cercetare în sfera publică. Chişinău: Centrul pentru Arta Contemporană, 89–101.

Nesterov, T. (2011b) “Implementarea realismului socialist în Chişinăul postbelic. Proiecte şi realizări,” in Ş. Rusu (ed.) Chişinău – arta, cercetare în sfera publică, Chişinău: Centrul pentru Arta Contemporană, 128–41.

Netsch, B. and Greiner, S. O. (2012) “Breslau/Wrocław – ein europäischer Erinnerungsort,” in Baustein Breslau. Frankfurt an der Oder: Geschichtswerkstatt Europa.

Przyłęcka, D. (2012) Nie od razu Wrocław odbudowanu. Plany zagospodarowania przestrzennego, koncepcje oraz projekty urbanistyczne i architektoniczne a ich realizacja w latach 1945-1989. Wrocław: Oficyna Wydawnicza Atut.

Ruda, N. (2000) Zum ewigen Andenken. Erinnerungen eines Mädchens aus dem Ghetto Lwow. Konstanz: Hartung-Gorre Verlag.

Rumänien (1932) Bucharest: Editura Ghidul României.

Rusu, Ş. (ed.) (2011) Chişinău – arta, cercetare în sfera publică. Chişinău: Centrul pentru Arta Contemporană.

Rychlo, P. (2004) “Czernowitz geistige Lebensform,” in P. Rychlo (ed.) Europa erlesen, Czernowitz. Klagenfurt/Celovec: Wieser Verlag.

Sandkühler, Th. (1996) “Endlösung” in Galizien. Der Judenmord in Ostpolen und die Rettungsinitiative von Berthold Beitz 1941–1944. Bonn: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Available at: www.ushmm.org.

Shapiro, P. A. (2015) The Kishinev Ghetto 1941–42: A Documentary History of the Holocaust in Romania’s Contested Borderlands. Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of Alabama Press.

Shchusev, A. (1945) “Perspektivy razvitiia Kishineva,” Sovetskaia Moldaviia 163 (August).

Ştefaniţa, I. (ed.) (2010) Cartea neagră a patrimoniului cultural al municipiului Chişinău. Chişinău: Ministerul Cultural al Republicii Moldova, Biroul UNESCO – Veneţia, Agenţia de inspectare şi restaurare a monumentilor.

Ther, P. (2005) “War versus Peace: Interethnic Relations in L’viv during the First Half of the Twentieth Century,” in J. Czaplicka (ed.) L’viv: A City in the Crosscurrents of Culture. Cambridge, MA: Ukrainian Research Institute, Harvard University, 251–84.

Thum, G. (2011) Uprooted: How Breslau Became Wrocław During the Century of Expulsions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press and Wrocław: Via Nova, 2011.

Tscherkes, B. (2005) “Stalinist Visions for the Urban Transformation of Lviv, 1939-1955,” in J. Czaplicka (ed.) L’viv: A City in the Crosscurrents of Culture. Cambridge, MA: Ukrainian Research Institute, Harvard University, 205–22.

Wierzbieniec, W. (2005) “The Processes of Jewish Emancipation and Assimilation in the Multiethnic City of Lviv during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” in J. Czaplicka (ed.) L’viv: A City in the Crosscurrents of Culture, Cambridge, MA: Ukrainian Research Institute, Harvard University, 223–50.

Wiesenthal, S. (1989) Justice—Not Vengeance. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

1 The Memory of Vanished Population Groups in Today’s East and Central European Urban Memory Treatment and Urban Planning in L’viv, Chernivtsi, Chişinău and Wrocław, financed by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond, Sweden, associated with the Centre for European Studies, Lund University, Sweden, led by Bo Larsson. Through archival studies and interviews, the project accumulated detailed information about the urban environment, inhabitants, shops, etc. before World War II, but this article only has space for brief summaries of these findings.

2 The research project includes surveys and interviews with people now living in the four cities in question. The results of these studies are partially presented in the chapters by Natalia Otrishchenko and Anastasia Felcher elsewhere in this volume and in other publications.

3 Information on churches and other historical buildings, including the tramway halls is available in numerous historical overviews, tourist guidebooks, and not least Iurie Colesnic’s books (Colesnic 1997, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015). There is no space here to define every source exactly, but most historical buildings, including vanished churches, are described here: http://www.monument.sit.md, and published in Gangal, Nesterov, et. al. (2010).

4 See further “Sfatul Țării (1917-1918),” istoria.md/articol/249/Sfatul_Țării.

5 Largely different from the present-day street names, which are in the Romanian language.

6 Among notable opera singers were Maria Cebotari, Lidia Lipcovschi, and Giacomo Borelli. The film director Lewis Milestone (Leova Millstein) was born in the city. Prominent artists were Moisei Gamburd and Alexandru Plămădeala. The latter founded Societatea de Arte Frumoase din Băsarabia in 1921, and initiated Pinacoteca Municipală in 1939, and also a sculpture park in Gradina Publică, with busts of prominent Romanian personalities of culture, art, and science. The latter was implemented in Soviet years, but the figures depicted were referred to as Moldovans.

7 Neo-Romanesc or Brâncoveanu style stressed the national and regional character. It was a merging of traditional Romanian architectural elements from churches, manors, and country houses with modern objectivity, also influenced by national Romanticism in other European countries.

8 Samuel Aroni, one of the interviewed persons, remembers the Bat’a shoe store, the Capulschi delicatessen, and a large bookstore in the area.

9 Postcard made available online by Yurii Shvets: http://oldchisinau.com/kishinyov-starye-fotografii/kishinyov-v-vysokom-razreshenii/centr-kishinyova-1930-e-gg/.

10 The detailed study of interwar inhabitants is based on material from Archivă Naţională in Chişinău. From 1930 are hand-written lists, in the form Tablou pentru revizuirea numerotării clădirilor in oraşe, of inhabitants (heads of households and the number of persons in each household) in all buildings along a large number of streets. There are printed lists of the proprietors along the streets as well as hand-written notes about inhabitants of certain streets in 1940.

11 Present Strada Octavian Goga.

12 Present Strada Alexandru cel Bun.

13 Present Strada Bucureşti.

14 Present Strada Columna.

15 Present Strada Vasile Alecsandri.

16 Present Strada 31. August 1989.

17 Present Strada Armeneasca.

18 Since 48% of the inhabitants were Romanians in 1930, it is noteworthy that the Romanian share of the names seems to be smaller on the investigated streets. One reason could be that many Romanians (Moldovans) lived in the more or less rural suburbs. Another reason could be that many persons registered as Romanians may have Slavonic names, due to mixed ancestors.

19 Bric also refers to material from Steinchik, www.oldchisinau.com/sinagogue/sinagogue.html.

20 Hasidism and “Enlightenment,” in www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/kishinev/kis035.html, p. 53.

21 Testimony of Samuel Aroni, interviewed as part of our research project. Most of them would die within a year.

22 Because most Bessarabian Jews were more Russian- than Romanian-oriented, many Romanian politicians regarded them as possible fifth columnists in relation to the Soviet Union. Among poor Jews, there was in fact a socialist movement, hoping for better living conditions in a socialist society. However, there were also negative Jewish experiences of (tsarist) Russian rule—the Chişinău pogroms in 1903 and 1905—compared with the interwar Romanian time.

23 From Chişinău 589 persons were deported, 158 of them (26.82%) Jews. Caşu (2011: 39-56) refers to D. Boicu (ed.), Cartea memorei, calatog al victimelor totalitarismului communist (Chişinău: Ştinţa, 1999), mentioned in the Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania (2004), chaired by Elie Wiesel.

24 According to Samuel Aroni (1995). Encyclopedia Judaica even mentions the figure of 70,000; jewishvirtuallibrary.org/Kishinev-moldova.

25 The ghetto was described in two documents, undated but probably from December 1941 and January 1942, from a high commission appointed by Marshal Antonescu. Samuel Aroni translated these documents into English and published them, after adding some additional historical data and his own eyewitness memories (Aroni 1995). The English titles of the documents are “Report of Inquiry of the Commission Appointed by Order of Marshal Ion Antonescu, the Leader of the State, for the Investigation of Irregularities in the Ghetto of Chişinău” and “The Establishment of the Ghetto in Chişinău and the Camps in Bessarabia.”

26 The ghetto gates were at Strada Fântana Blanduzia (street not existing today) and Strada Cojocarilor. Strada T. Râşcanu, present-day Strada Arhanghelui Mihail, was crossed by the ghetto fence.

27 Ion Antonescu, Romanian dictator from November 1940, strongly supported the ideas driving the Holocaust. He was responsible for the deaths of 180,000–380,000 Jews (Friling 2004: 42–43, 61–65, 178 and 381–82).

28 According to Encyclopedia Judaica, jewishvirtuallibrary.org/Kishinev-moldova.

29 “Nemetskaia aeros”emka Kishineva. 3 maia 1944 goda,” available at OldChisinau.com, http://oldchisinau.com/panoramy-i-ayerofoto/nemeckaya-ayerosyomka-kishinyova-3-maya-1944-go/.

30 The first targets were people regarded as collaborators with the Romanian regime or as disloyal to the Soviet rule. Many Bessarabians had received Soviet citizenship against their will (Caşu 2010: 43, 50).

31 The interwar Moldovan Autonomous Soviet Republic in Transnistria was part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic from October 1924 to August 1940. Half of it was later included in the Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic, and today claims independence from Moldova.

32 Born in Chişinău, Shchusev was prominent before 1917. He was also the author of the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow.

33 The Romanian architect Octavian Doicescu had together with Dimitrie Ghiulamila already in 1940 presented a rather similar plan. This is studied by Tamara Nesterov within the frames of the research project connected with this chapter.

34 The interwar architects and project initiators were not mentioned.

35 Citation provided by Anatolie Gordeev (translated from Russian into English here).

36 Ibid.

37 Notably, the Old Town was not shown at all on a tourist map from 1976, except for the post-war boulevard.

38 Written by Sergius Ciocanu, president of ICOMOS Moldova (the Moldovan department of UNESCO’s advisory body on monuments and sites), and entitled “Chişinău—A Historical City in the Process of Disappearing.”

39 The conferences were arranged in 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018 by Grupul Civic pentru Patrimoniu Cultural and Asociaţia Nationala a Tinerilor Istorici din Moldova in cooperation with Direcţia Cultura a Primariei Municipiului Chişinău. Proceedings, from the conferences 2011–2017 to date, have been published in four anthologies edited by Musteaţa (2012–2018).

40 In the description of Habsburg Czernowitz in this article, the Austrian street names are used.

41 Monumental buildings include the Generalsgebäude, the Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, and Evangelical Churches, the Great Jewish Temple, the Greek Orthodox Cathedral, the Jewish Temple, the Musikvereinsgebäude, the University, the City Hall, the City Theater (designed by the Viennese architects Ferdinand Fellner and Hermann Helmer), the Military Casino, the Government, the Landhaus (parliament), the railway station, designed under the influence of the prominent Austrian architect Otto Wagner (the first railway opened in 1866), and Bukowiner Sparkassengebäude (designed by architect Hubert Gessner, pupil of Otto Wagner).

42 Architect Joseph Hlávka.

43 The Romanian national movement used both. For example, the Sfântul Nicolae church in Brâncoveanu style and the Romanian Palace of Culture in the modernist style were both erected in 1938.

44 After Poland’s partition at the end of 1939, some thousand Polish citizens, mainly Jews, escaped to Cernăuţi; Mark Tolts, “Population and Migration. Migration since World War I,” The YIVO Encyclopaedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, undated, http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/printarticle.aspx?id=2533.

45 The digitized address books of 1914 and 1936, available at Edgar Hauster’s Czernowitz Blog, http://czernowitz.blogspot.com, give an overview of working inhabitants with names, addresses, and professions. Archival documents show several property owners on different streets before their properties were nationalized by the Soviet authorities in autumn 1940.

46 Citation from the local communist party committee (Masan 2000: 38) (translated from German by the author of this chapter.)

47 According to Andrei Corbea-Hoisie, “Chernivtsi,” translated from Romanian by Anca Mircea, YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, http://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Chernivtsi.

48 According to Yad Vashem, Popovici saved the lives of 16,500 persons; “Traian Popovici,” Yad Vashem, https://www.yadvashem.org/righteous/stories/popovici.html. According to Masan (2000: 39), the ethnic Polish lawyer Grzegorz Szymanowicz, consul for Chile, in cooperation with the Chilean chargé d’affaires in Bucharest, Samuel del Campo, saved the lives of another 1,000–1,200 Jews by issuing Chilean passports; “Chilean Diplomat Who Saved over 1,200 Jews Honored as Righteous Among the Nations,” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 22 October 2017, https://www.jta.org/2017/10/22/israel/chilean-diplomat-who-saved-over-1200-jews-honored-as-righteous-gentile.

49 “Chernovtsy,” Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Meter Publishing, 1971–72).

50 Franzensgasse, earlier renamed Strada 11 Noiembrie by the Romanians after their takeover in 1918, was renamed June 28 Street by the Soviets after their takeover in 1940. This name is, remarkably enough, still used.

51 In its turn, this monument had itself replaced a monument to Friedrich Schiller.

52 “Main Street” in Ukrainian.

53 Especially the City Park (a former Jesuit garden), Kiliński (Stryjski) Park, Castle Hill Park, and also the Łykaczów cemetery.

54 Cultural figures with ties to the city include Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Joseph Roth, Sholem Aleichem, Martin Buber, Stanisław Lem, Józef Wittlin, Wilhelm Feldman, Ostap Ortwin, Olena Kulchycka, Jan Lam, and the Jewish religious philosopher Nachman Kohen Krochmal. Several cafés functioned as popular meeting places for writers, artists, philosophers, academicians, etc. Franz Xavier Mozart, son of Wolfgang Amadeus, was music conductor in the city for thirty years.

55 Information about shops and other enterprises is based on the Lwów section of the Polish business directory from 1929, available via the JewishGen KehilaLinks website, at: https://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/lviv/DirectoryMain.html.

56 Early modernist architects included Ferdinand Kassler, Zbigniew Wardzala, Julian Awin, Tadeusz Wróbel, and Witold Minkiewicz. Cf. Hofer, Leitner and Tscherkes (2010).

57 The following passage is mainly based on Tscherkes (2005: 205–18). He writes that urban planning was carried out by the L’viv branch of Dipromist, the Ukrainian State Institute of Urban Planning.

58 Namely, P. Pen’kovs’kyi, W. Leiber, and Solomon Keil.

59 Karsianov also criticizes the traditional immense commercial preoccupation of the population and refers to the “parasitic character” of L’viv. He also described L’viv as the “center of the papal Catholic-Uniate reaction,” where “the proud veil of European culture masks the offensive face of a capitalist barbarian.”

60 Polish street names.

61 “Lviv Ghetto,” Aktion Reinhard Camps website, www.deathcamps.org/occupation/lvov%20ghetto.html.

62 The later limitations of the ghetto are shown on a map at the site www.deathcamp.org/lvov%20ghetto.html.

63 Important testimonies of the Holocaust and ghetto in L’viv are given by Nada Ruda (2000) and Lili Chuwis Thau (2012).

64 The last execution, at Janowska camp on 18 November 1943, was called the Aktion Erntefest; cf. Friedman (1945: 593 ff).

65 For more information, see also the Aktion Reinhard Camps website, www.deathcamps.org.

66 Within a few months, the Soviet authorities had “repatriated” 117,000 Poles from western Ukraine to Poland, partly still under German occupation; cf. Åberg (2005).

67 Also material provided by Vitaliy Shulyar, within the Memory of Vanished Population Groups research project.

68 In this section, present-day street names are used.

69 The Old Synagogue and the Reform Synagogue had been destroyed in the war. New buildings were also planned at the main railway station, giving the visitor a “Soviet” welcome to the city. Material from Vitaliy Shulyar.

70 Material provided by Vitaliy Shulyar.

71 The monument was created by the Israeli sculptor Luisa Sterenstein, one-time resident of L’viv, together with her son Yoel Schmukler.

72 The OUN was the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, founded in 1929.

73 It was designed by Carl-Ferdinand Langhans, who also designed the second City Theater (1841). The first theater (1787) was designed by his father, Carl Gotthard Langhans, who also designed parts of the Stadtschloss (1796–97).

74 Not far from there, the Jewish social democratic pioneer Ferdinand Lassalle was born.

75 In the nineteenth and early twentieth century the renewed City Theater (Opera), the Main Railway station, commercial and bank buildings, municipal buildings, and the large Market hall were erected, as well as museum, university, and hospital buildings, the Royal Court building, and the Silesian government building. Prominent architects in this process were Karl Klimm, Richard Plüddemann, Carl Ferdinand Busse, and Karl Friedrich Endell.

76 An important source of this passage is Davies and Moorhouse (2003). Jewish culture in Breslau is described in detail in Łagiewski (2010). Notable figures of Jewish background include the Nobel Prize winners Lenard, Stern, Born, Haber, Ehrlich, and Selten (see further note 75); social democratic leader Ferdinand Lassalle; philosophers Edith Stein and Ernst Casssirer; sociologist Norbert Elias; reporter Henry Kamm; and historian Walter Laqueur.

77 Theodor Mommsen (1902) and Gerhardt Hauptmann (1912) in literature, Philipp Lenard (1905), Erwin Schrödinger (1933), Otto Stern (1943) and Max Born (1954) in physics, Eduard Buchner (1907), Fritz Haber (1918) and Friedrich Bergius (1931) in chemistry, Paul Ehrlich (1908) in medicine, and Richard Selten (1994) in economics. The famous psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer was active in Breslau. In 1879, Johannes Brahms was honorary doctor of music in Breslau. In 2019, Wrocław acquired its twelfth Nobel Prize laureate: Olga Tokarczuk (literature).

78 Popowice (1919–28) by Theodor Effenberger, Moritz Hadda et al. Moritz Hadda, from a Jewish family, was murdered in Riga in 1941. Other significant, murdered Breslau Jewish architects were the brothers Ruben and Paul Ehrlich and Martin Hadda, brother of Moritz.

79 Sępolno (1919–35) by Hermann Wahlich and Paul Heim.

80 Information about modernist interwar architecture in Breslau is based on Bińkowska (2004), and Beelitz and Förster (2006).

81 Information about inhabitants, shops, and other enterprises is based on the address books from 1927 and 1937: Breslauer Adressbuch 1927 (Breslau: August Scherl Deutsche Adressbuch Gesellschaft, 1927), available via the website of Dolnośląska Biblioteka Cyfrowa website, https://www.dbc.wroc.pl/publication/9272; and Breslauer Adressbuch 1937 (Breslau: August Scherl Deutsche Adressbuch Gesellschaft, 1937), available at Antykwariat Sobieski, https://antyksobieski.pl/breslauer-adressbuch-1937-ksiega-adresowa-miasta-wroclawia.html (1937).

82 The social democrat leaders were placed there, including the former Mayor of Breslau Jarl Mache.

83 This plan, parallel to the Speer plan for Berlin, was proposed by the Berlin architect Werner March.

84 1935–37, architect Felix Bräuler, inspired by Hitler’s Reichskanzlei in Berlin.

85 Among the deported was the philosopher Edith Stein (1891–1942), who lived at Michaelisstraße/ul. Nowowiejski 38, converted to Roman Catholicism and became a Discalced Carmelite nun, but was nevertheless murdered at Auschwitz.

86 According to Mühle (2015: 259–60), 70% of the buildings in the city were destroyed, in south and west districts up to 90%, in the north and east district 10–30%; and in the old city center, around 50%.

87 Two million of them died very soon, about half a million directly in the course of flight and expulsion. By 1947 most German Breslauers had been expelled, including surviving German Jews.

88 At Blücherstraße no. 23–27 three apartment buildings were confiscated for use by the local Polish authorities. The German residents were given twenty minutes to leave their homes; only the owner of no. 27, a baker, was allowed to stay, after he agreed to provide the Polish officials with fresh bread (Thum 2011).

89 The Kaiser Wilhelm I monument was replaced by a statue of the Polish king Bolesław Chobry. The statue of Friedrich Wilhelm III was replaced by a statue of the Polish poet Aleksander Fredro, recovered from Lwów, where he was replaced by Mykhailo Hrushevsky with Ukraine’s independence.

90 The reconstruction process required that several German skilled workers and specialists remained.

91 An inspiration for this work was a model of Ringplatz around 1800, constructed by the building commissioner Rudolf Stein in the 1930s.

92 An important source for the passages about war destruction and post-war reconstruction and plans in Wrocław is material, not yet published, from the Department of Architecture, Politechnika Wrocławska, 2011–12, collected for the project Memory of Vanished Population Groups in Today’s East and Central European Urban Environment. Memory Treatment and Urban Planning in L’viv, Chernivci, Chişinău and Wrocław.

93 Reconstruction and development plan for Wrocław Old Town and downtown (1955). Elaborated by the City Planning Office under A. Kulicz (Małachowicz 1976: 160).

94 Development plan for the Old Town area (1961–65) (Przyłęcka 2012: 33).

95 The Pope spoke there in May 1997.

96 Polish street names.