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Further to the socio-environmental criticisms, the market is no longer considered, from a consumer perspective, to be a place where beneficial exchanges can occur. It is instead perceived as a space of influence in which unbalanced exchanges take place, with poorly equipped and influenced consumers who make sub-optimal choices (Dobscha 1998).

The representation of the market from critical sociology (Baudrillard 1970) highlights behavior in opposition to the market, which is considered as combative in view of the market’s hegemonic and oppressive role. Moreover, the postmodern paradigm (Firat and Venkatesh 1995) emphasizes the “fragmentation of society” that makes it possible for consumers to free themselves through various alternatives to consumption that constitute as many degrees of freedom. From this point of view, this opposition concerns an “expression of self” more than a “fight”. This being the case, the opposition movements sometimes express themselves in relation to the deterioration of the environment, considering the capitalist system that governs the market to be a “structure of destruction” (François-Lecompte and Valette-Florence 2006), and sometimes in relation to the techniques of the market-oriented system, viewing the market as a “structure of domination” (Murray and Ozanne 2009). At the same time, the emphasis is on the “conscientization” of the consumer in regard to the tools and methods of the market-oriented system. Roux (2007) refers to this “awareness” as a precondition for learning about market relationships and then acquiring skills that make it possible to have, in fine, a clear idea of the context of trade and the unbalanced relationships of the powers involved.

In order to address the object of criticism of marketing and the market system and/or to articulate the resistance reactions of consumers to this criticism, it is therefore necessary to consider the nature of the market’s measures and their socio-environmental impact. As a result, to regenerate, marketing would need to have a genuine paradigmatic break, with the aim of inventing an innovative and deliberately different marketing model (Badot and Cova 2008). The latter should, in particular, identify the expectations and interests of citizen-consumers in advance by measuring, at the ethical level, the impact of their choices and actions on the different stakeholders and, more broadly, on society as a whole. For a company, this proactive attitude should consist of engaging in a thorough process of transformation of methods and practices that integrates more coproduction with the consumer, and researching the meaning of goods offered and ecological and societal concerns.

The communities we have investigated have, in this regard, shown criticisms and denunciations of the market system, as well as guidelines for an alternative marketing model. This position is in line with the values of these opposition communities, whose protest is focused on social and environmental concerns (Benhallam 2016). Indeed, in using the analysis of the data collected within these communities (see Box 1.1), several possibilities for change, or even for transformation, present themselves to the field of marketing.

Box 1.1. Netnographic study of three online communities involved in responsible consumption

In order to respond to our question, and to be able to understand how the communities in opposition to market ideology express themselves and which possibilities they can open up in terms of marketing practices, we have chosen a qualitative netnographic approach. We are interested in three distinct virtual communities who share their denunciation and rejection of market-oriented ideology (and its corollaries, the capitalist system and excessive consumption), while showing their stance in favor of sustainable and managed consumption.

Our approach relies primarily on the study of one main community, “Le changement par la consommation”, and two secondary communities, “Mr Mondialisation” and “Objecteurs de croissance”. The selection was based on the stated position of the community, the high number of members, regular posting by the central moderator(s) and significant member activity. The inclusion of the secondary communities aimed to allow the comparison of the results from the main community with those of other fields, in order to ensure their relevance and to gain external validation.

The netnographic study was carried out through a long (24 months) immersion in the three communities with non-participative observation, ensuring a non-intrusive environment with natural interactions that preserves authenticity on the ground and the reliability of the data (Hewer and Brownlie 2007). However, in order to respect the principles of ethics (Kozinets 2012), the central moderator(s) were asked questions relating to the use and publication of data through private messages, ensuring transparency in regard to our intentions and the use, for purely scientific purposes, of the information collected.

The significant body of information available was filtered through the use of key words (namely, resistance, opposition, rejection, (over)consumption, consumerism, commodification, consumer ideology/values, etc.) and through the calculation of a Buzz Indicator (BI) ⁴, developed on an ad hoc basis to select the most salient and relevant data. We thereby retained the subjects and concerns that are characterized by both strong engagement (BI score) and significant recurrence within each of these communities. The stable results obtained in this way have been put into a reference framework suited to the opposition phenomenon, the interpretation of which enables the proposition, in fine, of possible changes to marketing practices.

Table 1.1. Main features of the three communities studied

(source: (Benhallam 2016))

Communities	Aim of the community	Creation date	Number of central moderators
Le changement par la consommation	Challenge the capitalist system and the modes of consumption it creates and propose alternative solutions. The different community posts are intended to make its members react, while allowing information to circulate within the social network to reach a larger audience.	May 2011	1 moderator
Mr Mondialisation	Provoke reflection through information, videos and pictures of issues related to the dominant system and its impact on the life of humankind and the environment. The aim is to lead its members to debate and create ideas and solutions. The community regularly organizes protest activities online and on the ground.	November 2008	Several moderators
Objecteurs de croissance	Defend and spread the school of thought that “degrowth does not mean living less, but better with more goods and more connections”. Involvement in debate and interactions between members are a requirement. Emphasis is also placed on reflection and raising awareness, rather than on proposing solutions.	June 2012	1 moderator

The three communities studied (see Table 1.1), both the central moderators and active members, aim to challenge the dominant modes of consumption through an ongoing effort to deconstruct the conventional market-oriented system, with the aim of proposing alternative adjustments, or even breakthrough solutions.

The analysis of thematic content through exchanges between the members of the three community sites has enabled, after the clean-up of discussions, the data to be structured into two meta-topics reflecting the main forms of expression of the opposition of these movements. These meta-topics are divided into four categories covering the challenging of the dominant ideology, the re-establishment of trust in trade relationships, the reconsideration of product offers and the reconfiguration of supply and distribution networks.