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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Integrated muon flux after passing through rock with a given thic...Figure 1.2 Principle of the muon tracking. The top view (a) and the side vie...Figure 1.3 Photographs of airborne muography. Distant (a) and close‐up (b) v...Figure 1.4 Muographic image of Satsuma‐Iwojima volcano, Japan. The arrow ind...Figure 1.5 Conduit magmatic convection model of Satsuma‐Iwojima volcano.Figure 1.6 Muographic image of Asama volcano, Japan (a) and images before an...Figure 1.7 Density variations of the central southern region of Honshu, Japa...Figure 1.8 Response of the muon flux to rainfall events. (a) The response in...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Schematic of merging angular bins in generating a muographic imag...Figure 2.2 Schematic of the definition of X, Z, β, and D in equation 2....Figure 2.3 Schematic of the path length normalization approximation.Figure 2.4 Topography around Omuroyama volcano and the location of the muon ...Figure 2.5 Reconstructed density images with a checkerboard structure of a h...Figure 2.6 Reconstructed density images with a checkerboard structure of a v...Figure 2.7 Reconstructed E–W density profiles along the dashed line in Fig. ...Figure 2.8 Reconstructed vertical density profile with a checkerboard struct...Figure 2.9 Reconstructed density images with the two‐cylinder structure of a...Figure 2.10 Reconstructed E–W density profile with the two‐cylinder structur...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 (Left) Gravity observation. The white instrument in front of the ...Figure 3.2 (a) Geometrical relationship between the gravitational, centrifug...Figure 3.3 The free‐air gravity anomaly can be decomposed into the three ter...Figure 3.4 Schematic illustration of linear joint inversion of muography and...Figure 3.5 Three‐dimensional representation of density distribution inside S...Figure 3.6 2D density map of Showa‐Shinzan lava dome derived from muography ...Figure S3.1 Geometry of a rectangular prism and its gravitational attraction...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The data flow diagram of MWPC‐based Muography Observation System....Figure 4.2 Three muograms captured by MWPC‐based Muography Observation Syste...Figure 4.3 Average muon flux values are plotted with 1σ standard deviat...Figure 4.4 Averaged relative flux values for eruption days and the two days ...Figure 4.5 (a) Cross‐validation scores of support vector machine are plotted...Figure 4.6 Receiver operating characteristic curve for neural network. The c...Figure 4.7 The schematic diagram of muographic image processing with convolu...Figure 4.8 Receiver operating characteristic curve of convolutional neural n...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Main structures of the La Soufrière lava dome with sensor emplace...Figure 5.2 View of a field telescope in maintenance on La Soufrière at the R...Figure 5.3 Minimum acquisition time T _min versus the average measured flux Φ₀ Figure 5.4 Example of upward flux correction in a muography of La Soufrière ...Figure 5.5 Main electrically conductive structures found with 3D ERT of La S...Figure 5.6 Horizontal slices of a 3D density model at various altitudes with...Figure 5.7 Time variations of vent temperature (in degrees Celsius) and seis...Figure 5.8 Characteristics of the temperature cycles identified (separated b...Figure 5.9 Location of the seismic noise source volume. The yellow body repr...Figure 5.10 Time variations of the muon flux across different domains of the...Figure 5.11 Conceptual view of the destabilization process as documented by ...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Stromboli island. The location of the muon detector is indicated ...Figure 6.2 Main features of the crater terrace in (a) 2008 and (b) 2012 (Qui...Figure 6.3 (a) Image of the southwest (SWC), central (CC), and northeast (NE...Figure 6.4 The detector installed at the site located at ~ 640 m above the s...Figure 6.5 Synthetic representation of the data collected at Stromboli, supp...Figure 6.6 Example of Misfit deformation data‐model analysis considering GBI...Figure 6.7 (a) Time evolution of the STRA station (see location at Fig. 6.1)...Figure 6.8 Comparison between the muon flux (a) and the relative variation o...Figure 6.9 Summary plot of GBInSar (deformation sources, white ellipse), sei...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Detail (a) and wide view (b) of the fracture system at Mount Etna...Figure 7.2 Summit craters map created with MATLAB from a 10 m resolution Dig...Figure 7.3 The telescope placed on the slope of Etna Northeast crater in Oct...Figure 7.4 A sketch of the MEV telescope, made by three tracking planes, seg...Figure 7.5 Assembly of a telescope tracking plane at DFA. (a) It is possible...Figure 7.6 Comparison between theoretical (top panel) and corrected acceptan...Figure 7.7 A front‐end (FE) board equipped with a Hamamatsu H8500 64 channel...Figure 7.8 2017 muography of Mount Etna northeast crater. The image shows a ...Figure 7.9 Same as Fig. 7.8, but with 2018 data.Figure 7.10 Same as Fig. 7.8, but with 2019 data.Figure 7.11 Example of the procedure to determine the target object profile ...Figure 7.12 2019 muography of Mount Etna northeast crater with the applicati...Figure 7.13 (a) N (red) counts of muon particle flux incoming from the targe...Figure 7.14 Overall (blue) and filtered (green) Δt distributions for data ac...Figure 7.15 Picture of the inner flanks of the NEC (December 2017). In the c...Figure 7.16 (a) Sulfuric sublimates incrustating a degassing fracture at the...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 (a) A photograph of Sakurajima volcano with the Sakurajima Muogra...Figure 8.2 An illustration of the explosive eruptions of Sakurajima volcano ...Figure 8.3 The daily number of eruptions are shown for Minamidake crater fro...Figure 8.4 (a) The photograph of five MWPC‐based tracking systems in the Sak...Figure 8.5 The survival rates of muons through the MMOS are shown as a funct...Figure 8.6 (a) Simulated penetration ratios of 1 TeV and 10 TeV muons throug...Figure 8.7 The calculated effective temperatures (filled circles) are shown ...Figure 8.8 The calculated fluxes are plotted as a function of elevation (tan...Figure 8.9 The absolute densities measured through the crater region of Saku...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Instrumental measurements from 1843 to 1858 (various authors). It...Figure 9.2 The upper part of Vesuvius. (a) Evolution of Vesuvius crater betw...Figure 9.3 First detector installed at Vesuvius in 2009. (a) The muon detect...Figure 9.4 MURAVES Laboratory positioned in the National Park of Vesuvius in...Figure 9.5 Position of the MURAVES Laboratory at Vesuvius, about 640 m above...Figure 9.6 Sketch of the hodoscope installed in the MURAVES Laboratory at Ve...Figure 9.7 Picture of hodoscope installed in the MURAVES Laboratory at Vesuv...Figure 9.8 Vesuvius thickness distribution in (α, ϕ) coordinates, ...Figure 9.9 Expected muon flux in function of particle direction (α, ϕ...Figure 9.10 Expected muon transmission through Mt. Vesuvius. The bin size is...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Blue zones indicate the presence of carbonate rocks in the Medit...Figure 10.2 Conceptual south–north cross‐section of the southern flank of Al...Figure 10.3 Comparison between different types of geological and geophysical...Figure 10.4 Different technologies for cosmic ray measurements used at the L...Figure 10.5 Flux differences linked to rock density contrasts for a detector...Figure 10.6 Muographic devices at the LSBB: (a) liquid scintillators; (b) MU...Figure 10.7 Schematic cross‐section of the MUST² detector to illustrate its ...Figure 10.8 (a) Map of the Buissonnière area with location of muon dete...Figure 10.9 Muon density measured in September 2018 (a) and density change i...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 (a) The gain dependence on the distance between the pad‐plane an...Figure 11.2 (a) Schematics of the PIC32 micro‐controller based data acquisit...Figure 11.3 (a) Photo of a RaspberryPi micro computer‐based data acquisition...Figure 11.4 (a) Reference measurements at two locations of the Jánossy under...Figure 11.5 (a) Location of the muograph in the Ajándék cave system; known c...Figure 11.6 (a) Photographs of the used muography tracker in natural cave. (...Figure 11.7 Results from the Királylaki cave. (a) With axes as angle from th...Figure 11.8 The first measurements under the Castle of Buda, in an old tunne...Figure 11.9 (a) Series of muography measurements along a tunnel with the ind...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Picture of Mount Echia. Credit: Google MAPFigure 12.2 Schematic view of the MU‐RAY (left) and MIMA (right) muon detect...Figure 12.3 Schematic view of the arrangement of the scintillator bars with ...Figure 12.4 The system of known cavities and the three locations A, B, and C...Figure 12.5a–c The relative transmission R(α, ϕ, ρ) observed ...Figure 12.6 (a) Muography taken from the location A of Fig. 12.4. The plot s...Figure 12.7 Relative transmission plots elaborated by the clustering algorit...Figure 12.8 Left: 3D reconstruction of the hidden cavity. Right: the hidden ...Figure 12.9 Test of the 3D reconstruction method by simulation of volumes of...Figure 12.10 (a) The center of the hidden cavity and other four reference po...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Characteristic glacial landscapes in Switzerland. (a) U‐shaped v...Figure 13.2 Schematic view of muography at alpine glaciers.Figure 13.3 Detector frames mounted on the wall of the Jungfrau railway tunn...Figure 13.4 The microscopic view of the particle tracks recorded in the emul...Figure 13.5 (a) Angular distributions of muons measured beneath the Aletsch ...Figure 13.6 (a) Observed muon flux for thin overburden (≲ 200 m) beneath the...Figure 13.7 (a) Aletsch glacier: raw visualization of the bedrock position d...Figure 13.8 Eiger glacier: Cross‐sectional views of the bedrock topography r...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 (a) location of the Boulby Mine and analogous Hewett depleted ga...Figure 14.2 CO₂ plume modelling post‐injection, with time increasing from to...Figure 14.3 Cross‐section of an example configuration of scintillator bars i...Figure 14.4 Rate of events as a function of the number of bars hit per event...Figure 14.5 The significance S of the change in muon count in the detector p...Figure 14.6 (a) External enclosure for scintillator bar detector; (b) scinti...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Some potential applications of telescope and borehole muography ...Figure 15.2 Stages of an exploration project with associated risk levels and...

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Schematic of the relationship between the geological model and t...Figure 16.2 The mean muon energy underground, over depths from 1,000 (370) t...Figure 16.3 Fit using equation 16.3, to vertical surface muon intensity data...Figure 16.4 Surface topography above the Price deposit at the Myra Falls min...Figure 16.5 Expected muon radiograph at the S5 location for the Price deposi...Figure 16.6 Isosurface of the 3D density model derived by inverting the muon...Figure 16.7 An overview of the drill holes with density assay information in...Figure 16.8 Sections of the density distribution taken from joint inversion ...Figure 16.9 The McArthur River uranium deposit and the nearby mine workings....Figure 16.10 The anomalous for Chamber 2 data (a) from the McArthur River ...Figure 16.11 Slices through the density distribution derived by inverting ac...Figure 16.12 Radiographic images for four detectors in the survey. The color...Figure 16.13 A simplified model of a nickel sulfide deposit (semi‐transparen...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Two versions of muon telescopes operating on the Soufrière of G...Figure 17.2 (Top) Schematics of a muon detector with three active planes (f...Figure 17.3 (Top) Detection principle of a scintillator+WLS fibre system. (...Figure 17.4 First‐generation Scintillator matrices with 16×16 strips from F...Figure 17.5 Second‐generation scintillator matrices with 32×32 strips from ...Figure 17.6 Readout system for MAPM. The front‐end (FE) board, connecting t...Figure 17.7 SiPM Trigger Board connected to the standard readout chain used...Figure 17.8 Summary of the experiments on the Soufrière of Guadeloupe with ...Figure 17.9 Apparent density map of the dome measured from the East side of...Figure 17.10 MURAVES scintillators, schematics, and detection plane. The tr...Figure 17.11 MURAVES structural imaging of the Vesuvius. The color scale has...Figure 17.12 (Left) Schematic view of the radiographic imaging of a volcano ...Figure 17.13 (Left) The muon telescope housed in an iron shield box made of...Figure 17.14 (Left) Picture of a Tunnel‐boring Machine (TBM) of the Herrenk...Figure 17.15 (Left) Picture of the muon detector inside the TBM. (Right) Ex...

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Diagram of a single‐gap RPC. The gas volume is contained betwee...Figure 18.2 The TOMUVOL muon telescope (left) and a sketch of one of its de...Figure 18.3 A photograph (a) and a muography (b) of the top 400 meters of t...Figure 18.4 The RPCs usage at the Pierre Auger Observatory and LouMu. (Left...Figure 18.5 Portable muoscope consisting of 4 mini‐gRPC detector layers (le...

19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 MWPC designed for muography applications (Varga et al., 2016). (...Figure 19.2 MWPC construction and performance. (a) MWPC chamber with 115 cm ...Figure 19.3 Close cathode chamber internal structure (Varga, 2011) (a) and w...Figure 19.4 CCC detector assembly. Back side equipped with readout electroni...Figure 19.5 (a) Event example in an MWPC tracking system with horizontal lay...Figure 19.6 Gas system at the SMO (Varga et al., 2019, with permission of El...Figure 19.7 DAQ system for an MWPC tracking detector, shown (a) as a block s...Figure 19.8 Modularity of large systems drastically increases the tolerance ...Figure 19.9 MOS structure example and background suppression capability. (a)...Figure 19.10 Muography imaging the vicinity of the Fairy‐rock in the Buda hi...Figure 19.11 Long term operation (4 months) of the SMO, data taking conditio...

20 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 MPGDs principle of operation schematics, adapted from Abbon et a...Figure 20.2 Comparison of a photography and a muography of the CEA‐Saclay wa...Figure 20.3 Event display of a muon particle crossing four consecutive multi...Figure 20.4 Muon telescope with four 50×50 cm² Micromegas mounted on an Alum...Figure 20.5 ADC amplitude variations as a function of time for a single dete...Figure 20.6 Typical control box containing the front‐end electronics, high‐v...Figure 20.7 Muography of the full (left) and empty (right) water tower (Bout...Figure 20.8 Evolution of the muon flux ratio between the tank region and the...Figure 20.9 Location of the detected void inside the Khufu’s pyramid (Tran, ...

21 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 (a) Nuclear emulsion before (left) and after (right) chemical de...Figure 21.2 Latent image fading characteristics of nuclear emulsions at 30 °...Figure 21.3 Comparison of latent image fading characteristics at 30 °C and 4...Figure 21.4 Comparison of fog‐increasing characteristics of nuclear emulsion...Figure 21.5 Fog increasing characteristics at 30 °C and 40% RH. Optical micr...Figure 21.6 Automated scanning systems: (a) S‐UTS, (b) ESS (Figure 1 of Arra...Figure 21.7 Process of emulsion scanning and three‐dimensional track reconst...Figure 21.8 Structure of nuclear emulsion detector and example of three‐dime...Figure 21.9 Muography of Mount Asama after eruption 2004. (a) Muograph of Mo...Figure 21.10 Muography of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Unit 2. (a) ...Figure 21.11 Muography of Khufu’s Pyramid. (a) Schematic view of Khufu’s Pyr...