Читать книгу Phosphors for Radiation Detectors - Группа авторов - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Classification of solid state ionizing radiation detectors.Figure 1.2 Interaction of typical ionizing radiations with matter.Figure 1.3 Typical emission mechanisms of scintillation.Figure 1.4 Typical emission mechanisms of scintillation.Figure 1.5 Emission spectra of scintillators under X‐ray irradiation and typ...Figure 1.6 (Top) Relationship between the scintillation decay time (ns) and ...Figure 1.7 Relationship between the scintillation decay time (ns) and emissi...Figure 1.8 Emission mechanisms of TSL, OSL, and RPL.Figure 1.9 Typical emission mechanisms of scintillation, OSL, TSL, and RPL....Figure 1.10 The inverse proportional relationship of Ce differently doped Ca...Figure 1.11 Schematic drawing of transmittance (absorption) (a) and PL measu...Figure 1.12 Schematic drawing of PL decay setup.Figure 1.13 Common setup of X‐ray induced radioluminescence spectrum measure...Figure 1.14 Common setup of γ‐ray induced scintillation decay curve measurem...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Configuration coordinate model of localized electronic system.Figure 2.2 Vibrational energy levels of organic molecules.Figure 2.3 Schematic diagram of singlet and triplet excited states and fluor...Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of nonradiative and radiative energy tra...Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of HOMO and LUMO bands of a donor and an...Figure 2.6 Schematic representation of energy transfer via exchange interact...Figure 2.7 Schematic representation of scintillation process in nanocomposit...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Schematic view of the Czochralski method.Figure 3.2 Schematic view of the vertical Bridgman‐Stockberger method.Figure 3.3 Schematic view of the micro‐pulling down method.Figure 3.4 Schematic view of the optical floating zone method.Figure 3.5 Changes of LY (positive hysteresis) in Ce:GSO with a function of ...Figure 3.6 Scintillation decay curve of Ce:GSO.Figure 3.7 Phase diagram of Lu2O3‐SiO2 binary system.Figure 3.8 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of Ce:LGSO and Ce:LYSO crysta...Figure 3.9 The unit‐cell geometry of the observed structure types of pyrosil...Figure 3.10 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of GPS and GSO scintillators...Figure 3.11 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of Ce:YAG.Figure 3.12 Scintillation decay curves of Ce:YAG underαandγ‐ray irradiation....Figure 3.13 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of (left) Ce:LuAG and (right...Figure 3.14 Phase diagram of Gd2O3‐Al2O3 binary system.Figure 3.15 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of Ce:GAGG crystal....Figure 3.16 Scintillation decay curves of Ce:GAGG under α‐ and γ‐ray irradia...Figure 3.17 Phase diagram of Tb2O3‐Al2O3 binary system.Figure 3.18 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of Ce:TAG crystal....Figure 3.19 Scintillation decay curve of Ce:TAG crystal.Figure 3.20 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of Ce:YAP crystal....Figure 3.21 Pulse height spectra of 137Cs γ‐rays measured using Ce:YAP cryst...Figure 3.22 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of CdWO4 crystal....Figure 3.23 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of BGO crystal....Figure 3.24 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of PbWO4 crystal....

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Decay times and light yields of commercial scintillators forγ‐ray...Figure 4.2 Band‐gap energies of selected halides. The values of Li‐ and Cs‐c...Figure 4.3 Solubilities of selected halides (in water, 25 °C) [11]....Figure 4.4 Melting temperatures of fluorides and oxides [13].Figure 4.5 Methods for inorganic crystal growth.Figure 4.6 The 2 in. diameter LaF3:Nd single crystal by the Czochralski meth...Figure 4.7 The CaF2 single crystal by the Czochralski method.Figure 4.8 The LiF single crystal grown by the micro‐pulling‐down method....Figure 4.9 CaF2 (a), SrF2 (b), BaF2 (c), LiF (d), PbF2 (e), and LiCaAlF6 (f)...Figure 4.10 The emission mechanism of core‐valence luminescence.Figure 4.11 The scintillation spectrum of BaF2 under X‐ray excitation measur...Figure 4.12 The scintillation decay curves of BaF2 and BaMgF4 single crystal...Figure 4.13 The scintillation spectrum of KMgF3 under X‐ray excitation measu...Figure 4.14 Pulse height spectra of the LiI:Eu single crystal underγ‐ray irr...Figure 4.15 The LiCaAlF6:Eu single crystal by the Czochralski method.Figure 4.16 Pulse height spectra of the LiCAF:Eu single crystal (9 × 9 × 0.5...Figure 4.17 Metallic Cd objects attached on papers (a) and the results of ne...Figure 4.18 The LiF/CaF2:Eu eutectic composite.Figure 4.19 The SEM image of the LiF/CaF2 eutectic composite.Figure 4.20 Pulse height spectra of the LiF/CaF2:Eu eutectic composites and ...Figure 4.21 Neutron absorption cross‐sections of atomsFigure 4.22 The 0.1–40% Pr‐doped CaF2 crystals by the spontaneous melt cryst...Figure 4.23 Scintillation decay curves of CaF2:Pr and CaF2:Eu crystals underFigure 4.24 Relative light yields of CaF2:Pr crystals underα‐ray irradiation...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Configuration of color centers and self‐trapped excitons in an io...Figure 5.2 Moisture absorption curves of a CsSr1‐xBaxI3:Eu (1%) single cryst...Figure 5.3 Moisture absorption curves of CeBr3, CeBr2Cl, CeBr1.5Cl1.5, CeBrC...Figure 5.4 Moisture absorption curves of SrI2, EuI2, BaI2, and CaI2 raw mate...Figure 5.5 Basic hydration processes in alkali and alkali‐earth iodides....Figure 5.6 Schematic of the Bridgman growth station with the modifications d...Figure 5.7 The X‐ray excited scintillation spectra of K2LaCl5:Ce [29].Figure 5.8 Scintillation decay curves of (a) K2KaCl5:Ce (b) K2KaBr5:Ce and (...Figure 5.9 137Cs‐gamma‐ray irradiated pulse height spectrum of RbGd2Br7:Ce [...Figure 5.10 (a) Scintillation spectrum and (b) 137Cs‐gamma‐ray irradiated pu...Figure 5.11 (a) Excitation and emission spectra and (b) 137Cs‐gamma‐ray irra...Figure 5.12 Comparison of pulse height spectra of CsBa2I5:Eu and NaI:Tl meas...Figure 5.13 Eu2+ emission decay time constants as a function of temperature ...Figure 5.14 (a) 137Cs‐gamma‐ray irradiated pulse height spectrum and (b) non...Figure 5.15 PSD scatter plot recorded for Cs2LiYCl6:Ce under irradiation fro...Figure 5.16 XRD patterns of LaBr2.25I0.75:Ce, LaBr1.5I1.5:Ce, and LaBr0.75I2...Figure 5.17 As‐retrieved grown Cs2HfCl6 with a diameter of (a) 16 mm and (b)...Figure 5.18 Schematic diagram of proposed three‐level model for a non‐lumine...Figure 5.19 (a) Photographic view of the Tl2LiGdCl6:Ce and (b) 137Cs‐gamma‐r...Figure 5.20 PSD scatter plot created using traces collected with Tl2LiYCl6:C...Figure 5.21 137Cs‐gamma‐ray irradiated pulse height spectra of the TlMgCl3 i...Figure 5.22 Scintillation decay time profile under excitation at pulsed X‐ra...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Density of state ρ(E) and Fermi–Dirac distribution f (E) in an in...Figure 6.2 Energy band structure of a direct band‐gap semiconductor and an i...Figure 6.3 Examples of radiative decay processes in semiconductors.Figure 6.4 X‐ray induced scintillation decay curves of undoped PbI2 at low t...Figure 6.5 X‐ray induced scintillation decay curves of undoped HgI2 at low t...Figure 6.6 X‐ray induced scintillation spectra of undoped ZnO at room temper...Figure 6.7 241Am α‐ray induced pulse height spectra of undoped ZnO with diff...Figure 6.8 X‐ray induced scintillation spectra of undoped Ga2O3 at room temp...Figure 6.9 γ‐ray induced pulse height spectra of undoped Ga2O3 at room tempe...Figure 6.10 Pulse height spectrum of ZnSe:O under 137Cs and 241Am γ‐ray irra...Figure 6.11 X‐ray induced scintillation decay time profiles of ZnO:Ga [8]....Figure 6.12 Fundamental types of low dimensional quantum nanostructures.Figure 6.13 Basic types of quantum wells and their illustration.Figure 6.14 Density of states in the conduction band of each semiconductor q...Figure 6.15 Illustration of absorption spectra of two‐dimensional systems (a...Figure 6.16 Photoluminescence emission wavelength versus quantum well size [...Figure 6.17 Unit cell of perovskite structure where the closed circle is div...Figure 6.18 Structures based on [PbX6]4− octahedra.Figure 6.19 Illustration of the temperature‐gradient crystallization method....Figure 6.20 Poor solvent diffusion method.Figure 6.21 Illustration of the inorganic structure without structural disto...Figure 6.22 Bonding diagram of [PbI6]4− cluster (a), and 3D and 2D crystal a...Figure 6.23 Calculation of band structure of (n‐C4H9NH3)2PbI4 (a) without st...Figure 6.24 Relative quantum efficiency and relative scintillation light yie...Figure 6.25 137Cs induced pulse height spectra of PhePbBr4 and Gd2SiO5:Ce.※P...Figure 6.26 Correlation between the peak intensity of excitonic emission fro...Figure 6.27 Scintillation decay time profile of (n‐C3H7NH3)2PbBr4 [14]....Figure 6.28 Afterglow profiles of PhePbBr4 and Gd2SiO5:Ce.※PhePbBr4 ((C6H5C2...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Glow curve from the Randall–Wilkins first‐order model equation.Figure 7.2 Scanning heating system with CO2 laser and PMT [21].Figure 7.3 2‐D TSL readout system with CCD camera and heater [22].Figure 7.4 The processes of storing radiation energy and releasing stored ra...Figure 7.5 Glow curve of CaSO4:Tm (heating rate: 0.2 °C·s−1)....Figure 7.6 The processes of storing radiation energy and releasing stored ra...Figure 7.7 Glow curve for each model.Figure 7.8 Change in glow curve according to n 0.Figure 7.9 Change in glow curve according to E.Figure 7.10 Change in glow curve according to s.Figure 7.11 Change in glow curve according to b.Figure 7.12 Glow curve measurement system and schematic diagram [23].Figure 7.13 Crystal structure of LiF [24].Figure 7.14 Typical glow curve of LiF:Mg,Ti (TLD‐100) irradiated with 100 Gy...Figure 7.15 TSL emission spectrum of LiF:Mg,Ti (TLD‐100) during heating afte...Figure 7.16 Glow curves of LiF:Mg,Ti and LiF:Mg,Cu,P (heating rate 2 °C s−1,...Figure 7.17 Crystal lattice of CaF2:Mn (a) before and (b) after irradiation ...Figure 7.18 Typical glow curve of CaF2:Mn (TLD‐400) at a dose of 3.85 Gy and...Figure 7.19 TSL emission spectrum of CaF2:Mn (TLD‐400) at 320 °C [30]....Figure 7.20 A typical TL glow‐curve of CaF2:Dy (TLD‐200) [32].Figure 7.21 TSL emission spectrum of CaF2:Dy (TLD‐200) at 150°C [30]....Figure 7.22 Typical CaF2:Tm (TLD‐300) glow curve [33].Figure 7.23 TSL emission spectrum of CaF2:Tm (TLD‐300) at 140 °C [30]....Figure 7.24 (a) Isometric plot of emission intensity versus temperature and ...Figure 7.25 Glow curves of undoped and Cr‐doped Al2O3 [23].Figure 7.26 TSL emission spectra of 0.05 w% Cr‐doped Al2O3 during heating [2...Figure 7.27 Glow curve of BeO (Thelmalox™ 995) irradiated with 1 Gy from a 1...Figure 7.28 TSL emission spectra of BeO (Thelmalox 995) irradiated with 10 G...Figure 7.29 Glow curves of CaSO4:RE (Tm, Dy, Sm and Tb) for a heating rate o...Figure 7.30 Typical examples of theoretical glow curve fitting for the posit...Figure 7.31 TSL emission spectra of CaSO4 with and without RE dopants: (a) u...Figure 7.32 Glow curve of Li2B4O7:Mn irradiated with 1 Gy of 137Csγ‐ra...Figure 7.33 TSL emission spectra of Li2B4O7 with and without RE dopants afte...Figure 7.34 Glow curves of MgB4O7:Dy, MgB4O7:Tm and MgB4O7:Mn after 1 Gy of ...Figure 7.35 TSL emission spectra of MgB4O7:Dy irradiated with 5 Gy of 137Cs...Figure 7.36 TSL dosimeter forms, including disks, rods, chips (top row, from...Figure 7.37 Relative photon energy response of LiF (Zeff = 8.14), CaF2 (Zeff...Figure 7.38 Relative efficiencies of TSLD‐BeO:Na (UD‐170A) (○), ...Figure 7.39 Glow curves LET dependence of 7LiF:Mg, Ti (TLD‐700) with 1 mGy o...Figure 7.40 TSL foils made from LiF:Mg,Cu,P and CaSO4:Dy [96].Figure 7.41 Tissue‐equivalent TSL slab dosimeter made from: (a) Li2B4O7:Mn,A...Figure 7.42 Low melting point Cr‐doped Al2O3 ceramic plates (Ceramic TSL sla...Figure 7.43 TSL imaging measurement system [42].Figure 7.44 Dose distribution of DQA test: (a) measured by the Al2O3:Cr TSL ...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Processes of charge generation (conversion), energy transportatio...Figure 8.2 Illustration for TSL and OSL phenomena. Upon irradiation, electro...Figure 8.3 Typical OSL emission spectrum (left) and stimulation spectrum (ri...Figure 8.4 Energy band diagram illustrating OSL phenomenon of KBr:Eu storage...Figure 8.5 Typical OSL emission and stimulation spectra of each CsBr storage...Figure 8.6 Optical absorption spectra of CsBr:Eu storage phosphor before and...Figure 8.7 Typical PL emission and its excitation spectra of CsBr:Eu storage...Figure 8.8 Photograph of developed IP sheet using CsBr:Eu phosphor storage f...Figure 8.9 SEM image of the CsBr:Eu storage phosphor film deposited on a gla...Figure 8.10 Light guide effects of a pillar structure.Figure 8.11 Transmittance images of IP using vapor deposited storage phospho...Figure 8.12 Wiener spectra of the IP using CsBr:Eu storage phosphor film com...Figure 8.13 MTF of the IP using CsBr:Eu storage phosphor film, compared with...Figure 8.14 Erasability of the OSL images for vapor deposited IP using CsBr:...Figure 8.15 X‐ray image of human breast obtained using IP with the CsBr:Eu s...Figure 8.16 Chest phantom X‐ray images measured using the IP with the CsB r:...Figure 8.17 Luxel + dosimeter consists of a Luxel detector enclosed in a mul...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Demonstration of RPL. A series of RPL glass plates (Ag‐doped sodi...Figure 9.2 PL spectra of Ag‐doped sodium‐aluminophosphate glass. (a) PL exci...Figure 9.3 Proposed mechanism of the RPL phenomenon in Ag‐doped sodium‐alumi...Figure 9.4 Thermal response properties of RPL. (a) RPL response as a functio...Figure 9.5 Commercialized personnel dosimeter badges using RPL glass detecto...Figure 9.6 Energy correction by using a series of metal filters. (P1 and P2 ...Figure 9.7 Energy dependence of RPL response after corrections.Figure 9.8 Signal processing techniques of RPL signal for Ag‐doped sodium‐al...Figure 9.9 A prototype of flexible RPL sheet. (a) Micro beads of RPL glass, ...Figure 9.10 As‐grown Al2O3:C,Mg single crystal rod and polished detector pla...Figure 9.11 PL excitation‐emission contour graphs of Al2O3:C,Mg a before and...Figure 9.12 Nuclear track detection demonstrated by using RPL of Al2O3:C,Mg....Figure 9.13 PL excitation and emission spectra of LiF after X‐ray irradiatio...Figure 9.14 Illustrative representation of a series of defect centers in LiF...Figure 9.15 Disk‐type radiation imaging technique by using a LiF thin‐film d...Figure 9.16 Nuclear track image obtained by using RPL of LiF as FNTD.Figure 9.17 Example PL (a) emission and (b) excitation spectra of an Sm‐dope...Figure 9.18 Demonstrations of erasing RPL response by (a) optical means and ...Figure 9.19 Reusability of Sm‐doped RPL detectors after erasure processes (a...Figure 9.20 The basic principle of microbeam radiation therapy.Figure 9.21 Dose response curves of RPL (a) by Sm‐doped fluorophosphates gla...Figure 9.22 Dose distribution of microbeam X‐rays measured by using RPL of S...Figure 9.23 Lateral distribution of X‐ray dose in microbeams measured by usi...Figure 9.24 Microbeam peak shapes measured by using Sm‐doped RPL detector an...Figure 9.25 Microbeam irradiation geometries at CLS, ESRF, and SPring‐8....Figure 9.26 Comparison of microbeam peak shapes measured by using Sm‐doped F...Figure 9.27 RPL properties of undoped CaSO4. (a) PL spectra with different i...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Schematic diagrams of measurement methods for (a) in‐line and (b...Figure 10.2 Light scattering sources in ceramics.Figure 10.3 Transmission of light in a medium and multiple reflections at th...Figure 10.4 Driving force of sintering on curved surface.Figure 10.5 Mass transfer paths during initial stage of sintering.Figure 10.6 Shrinkage of voids between adjacent particles.Figure 10.7 Mass transfer paths during intermediate stage in sintering.Figure 10.8 Coarsening of pores during grain growth step.Figure 10.9 Schematic diagrams of the normal sintering, HIP, HP, and SPS met...Figure 10.10 X‐ray‐induced scintillation spectra of all the samples in the V...Figure 10.11 Pulse height spectra measured under 137Csγ‐ray irradiation....Figure 10.12 X‐ray induced scintillation spectra of Tl:CsBr single crystal a...Figure 10.13 Pulse height spectra of 137Cs γ‐rays measured using Tl:CsBr si...Figure 10.14 TSL glow curves of the Al2O3 transparent ceramic and single cry...Figure 10.15 TSL dose response curves of the Al2O3 transparent ceramic and s...Figure 10.16 TSL glow curves of CaF2 transparent ceramic and single crystal.Figure 10.17 TSL glow curves of the MgO transparent ceramic and single cryst...Figure 10.18 Dose response curves. The TSL signal used here is the peak inte...Figure 10.19 PL emission spectra of MgF2 transparent ceramic (top) and singl...Figure 10.20 TSL glow curves of CsBr transparent ceramic and single crystal ...Figure 10.21 OSL emission spectra of CsBr transparent ceramic and single cry...Figure 10.22 OSL emission spectra of Eu‐doped CsBr transparent ceramic and s...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Strong–fragile Arrhenius representation of liquid viscosities sc...Figure 11.2 Schematic illustration of crystal (quartz) and glass (silica gla...Figure 11.3 (a) Neutron total structural factor S(Q) ofα‐quartz and SiO2 gla...Figure 11.4 Schematic representation of electronic band structure of perfect...Figure 11.5 A schematic relationship between volume (or enthalpy) and temper...Figure 11.6 Polarization optical micrograph (a) and SHG microscope observati...Figure 11.7 (a) TEM image of an AlN‐doped aluminoborate glass‐ceramic heat‐t...Figure 11.8 Ce L3‐edge XANES spectra of Ce‐doped lithium borosilicate glasse...Figure 11.9 (a) Mass attenuation coefficient of tin as a function of energy ...Figure 11.10 PL excitation and emission band of SiO2 glass. Top and bottom f...Figure 11.11 Optical absorption bands of intrinsic defects and impurity in s...Figure 11.12 (a) X‐ray induced scintillation property of 0.5 mol% Ce‐doped 4...Figure 11.13 Absorption lengths of typical inorganic scintillators based on ...Figure 11.14 Transmittance and scintillation spectra of a Ce‐doped hafnium f...Figure 11.15 The evolution of PL spectra under synchrotron x‐ray irradiation...Figure 11.16 X‐ray image of an integrated circuit taken by RPL of Sm‐doped f...Figure 11.17 TEM image of oxyfluoride nanocrystallized glass. 5 nm of BaF2 n...Figure 11.18 Tentative preparation process of sheet glasses. (a) A schematic...Figure 11.19 Schematic illustration of aerodynamic levitation technique. Tra...Figure 11.20 Glass fiber processes. (a) Schematic illustration of VAD proces...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Flow of measurements using (a) prompt and (b) delayed luminescen...Figure 12.2 Basic configuration of detectors using radiation induced lumines...Figure 12.3 (a) Pulse counting mode detector and (b) current mode detector....Figure 12.4 Snell's law.Figure 12.5 General configuration of the scintillator‐based gamma‐ray spectr...Figure 12.6 Typical response from the scintillator‐based gamma‐ray spectrome...Figure 12.7 Schematic view of the scintillator‐based X‐ray flat panel detect...Figure 12.8 Schematic drawing of the columnar CsI:Tl based FPD.Figure 12.9 Basic configuration of the X‐ray CT system.Figure 12.10 Gamma camera with a collimator.Figure 12.11 Position identification based on a center of gravity calculatio...Figure 12.12 Basic configuration of the PET system.Figure 12.13 Effect of parallax error correction by information of the depth...Figure 12.14 Effect of time‐of‐flight information. The PET system (a) withou...Figure 12.15 (a) Distribution of the arrival time difference between two sig...Figure 12.16 Various types of nuclear well‐logging techniques. (a) Passive g...Figure 12.17 Basic configuration of the radioactive contamination monitor us...Figure 12.18 Pulse height spectra obtained from (a) Ce:LiCaAlF6 and (b) Eu:L...Figure 12.19 Geometrical relation on pathways of scintillation photons in th...Figure 12.20 (a) Conceptual drawing of gamma‐ray suppression by controlling ...Figure 12.21 Photographs of (a) a Eu:LiCaAlF6 single crystal and (b) TRUST E...Figure 12.22 Schematic drawing of the wavelength‐shifting fiber (WLSF)....Figure 12.23 General configuration of the neutron camera system using the ne...Figure 12.24 (a) Schematic drawing of the proton recoil neutron detector. (b...Figure 12.25 Signal pulse shapes obtained from the stilbene scintillator.Figure 12.26 Two‐dimensional plot of the fast and slow components obtained f...Figure 12.27 PSD spectrum obtained from the stilbene scintillator. The ratio...Figure 12.28 Basic configuration of the TL reader system.Figure 12.29 Basic configuration of the OSL reader system.Figure 12.30 Schematic drawing the OSL imaging plate reader system.