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Группа авторов. Plastics and the Ocean
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Plastics and the Ocean: Origin, Characterization, Fate, and Impacts
List of Contributors
Preface
An Already Stressed Ocean
Is it a Cause for Concern?
How Much of a Threat do Plastics in the Ocean Pose?
Foreword
1 Plastics in the Anthropocene
1.1 What Are Plastics?
Box 1.1 Thermoplastics and Thermosets
1.2 Plastics at Present and in the Future
1.2.1 Plastics in the Ocean Environment
1.2.2 Microplastics in the Ocean
1.2.3 Chemicals in Plastic Debris
1.3 Ingestion of Microplastics Marine Organisms
Box 1.2 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
1.4 Sustainability of Plastics
1.4.1 Recycling of Post‐Use Plastics
1.4.2 Using Bio‐Based Feedstocks for Plastics
1.5 Plastic Manufacturing
1.6 Polymers: A Basic Introduction
1.6.1 Crystallinity in Plastics
1.6.2 Thermal Transitions
1.7 Societal Benefits of Plastics
1.7.1 Packaging Food and Beverage
Box 1.3 Paper or Plastic?
1.7.2 Plastics in Building
1.7.3 Plastics in Transportation
1.7.4 Plastics in Textile Fibers
1.7.5 Plastics in the Energy Industry
References
Notes
2 Plastic Additives in the Ocean
2.1 Function of Plastic Additive Classes
2.2 Functional Additives. 2.2.1 Plasticizers
2.2.2 Flame Retardants
2.2.3 Antioxidants
2.2.4 Heat Stabilizers
2.2.5 Impact Modifiers
2.2.6 Lubricants
2.2.7 Light Stabilizers
2.2.8 Colorants
2.2.9 Fillers and Reinforcements
2.3 Sources, Transport, and Fate of Additives in the Ocean
2.3.1 The Simple Release of Additives From Plastics to Water
2.3.2 The Complexity of Intentionally Added Versus Adsorbed Additives
2.3.3 The Complexity of Multiple Compartments
2.3.3.1 Transport of Plastic Additives to/From Marine Sediment
2.3.3.2 Transport of Plastic Additives to/From Marine Biota
2.4 Degradation of Plastic Additives in the Marine Environment
2.5 Detection in the Marine Environment
2.5.1 Plastic Samples
2.5.2 Abiotic Samples
2.5.3 Biotic Samples
2.6 Toxicity of Additives
2.7 NIST Disclaimer
References
3 Deconstructing the Plastic Soup : Methods to Identify and Quantify Marine Plastic Pollution Sources
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Methods for Determining Plastic Pollution Sources
3.2.1 Approach 1: Plastic Emission Rates. 3.2.1.1 Methodology Description
3.2.1.2 Open questions and missing data. 3.2.1.2.1 Determining Plastic Pollution Transport Coefficients
3.2.1.2.2 Bias in Sources Due to Available Data
3.2.1.3 Future Research Suggestions
3.2.2 Approach 2: Plastic Transport Models. 3.2.2.1 Methodology Description
3.2.2.2 Open Questions and Missing Data. 3.2.2.2.1 Integration of Transport Models
3.2.2.3 Suggestions for Future Research
3.2.3 Approach 3: Plastic Pollution Identification. 3.2.3.1 Methodology Description
3.2.3.1.1 Item Category
3.2.3.1.2 Release Location
3.2.3.1.3 Polymer Type
3.2.3.1.4 Geometry (and Other Numbers)
3.2.3.1.5 Language
3.2.3.1.6 Brand
3.2.3.1.7 Biofouling, Degradation, and Bitemarks
3.2.3.1.8 Date Stamps
3.2.3.2 Open Questions and Missing Data
3.2.3.3 Suggestions for Future Research
3.3 Discussion
3.3.1 Strategy 1 (Figure 3.4b): The Ferry Method—Input–Output Data Sharing
3.3.2 Strategy 2 (Figure 3.4c): The Bridge Method—Feedback between Methodologies
3.3.3 Strategy 3 (Figure 3.4d): The Polder Method—A Universal Plastic Pollution Model
3.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
4 Collection and Characterization of Microplastics Debris in Marine Ecosystems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 MP Sampling
4.2.1 Seawater
4.2.2 Beach Sediment
4.2.3 Macrophytes
4.2.4 Plankton
4.2.5 Shellfish and Fish Species
4.3 Sample Processing. 4.3.1 Physical Separation
4.3.2 Chemical Digestion
4.3.3 Novel Extraction and Isolation
4.4 Characterization and Quantification. 4.4.1 Physical Characterization. 4.4.1.1 Visual Identification
4.4.1.2 Microscopic Observation
4.4.1.3 Electron Microscopy
4.4.2 Chemical Characterization. 4.4.2.1 Infrared Spectroscopy
4.4.2.2 Mid‐infrared MP Characterization
4.4.2.3 Data Analysis for Mid‐infrared MP Characterization
4.4.2.4 NIR‐HSI for MP Characterization
4.4.2.5 Raman Microscopy
4.4.2.6 Chromatography
4.4.2.7 Thermogravimetric Analysis
4.4.3 Analytical Quality Assurance
4.5 Summary and Outlook
4.6 Conclusions
References
5 Estimating Microplastics in Deep Water
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sampling Methods
5.3 Spatial Patterns of MPs in Water Columns. 5.3.1 Global Mapping of microplastic Research in the Deep Ocean
5.3.2 Modeling and Transport Simulations
5.4 The Export of Microplastics from the Surface Water to the Deep Sea
5.4.1 Intrinsic Properties of the Plastic Particle
5.4.2 Biofilm
5.4.3 Fecal Pellets
5.4.4 Marine Aggregates
5.4.5 Environmental Factors
5.5 Knowledge gaps and conclusion
References
6 Marine Litter, Plastic, and Microplastics on the Seafloor
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Methods Used to Monitor Seafloor Litter
6.3 Sources
6.4 Oceanographic Conditions on the Seafloor
6.5 Accumulation Areas of Litter at the Seafloor
6.6 Importance of ALDFG
6.7 Nature and Distribution of Seafloor Litter
6.8 Microplastics
6.9 Impacts
6.10 Trends and Monitoring
6.11 Management Measures and Perspectives
6.12 Conclusions and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
7 Plastics in Freshwater Bodies
7.1 Introduction
Box 7.1 The importance of defining and reporting upper and lower size detection limits in relation to monitoring methods
7.2 Monitoring of Plastics in Freshwater Bodies
7.2.1 Required Steps to Monitor Plastics in the Environment
7.3 Global Observational Efforts
7.3.1 In Search of all the Relevant Literature
7.3.2 Geographical Distribution of Freshwater Studies
7.3.3 Investigating Different Environmental Compartments
7.3.4 Size Class Focus: Dominance of Microplastic, Need for Macroplastic, and Absence of Nanoplastic
7.4 Modeling Plastics in Rivers and Lakes. 7.4.1 Predicting Inputs of Plastics in Freshwater Bodies
7.4.2 Modeling the Processes Influencing Transport and Fate of Plastics in Freshwater
7.4.3 Quantifying Plastic Outputs Into the Ocean
7.5 Prospects and Opportunities
7.5.1 Temporal Variability
7.5.2 Transfer Between Compartments
7.5.3 Plastic Size Investigations
7.5.4 Data Quality Control and Validation of Results
References
8 Degradation and Fragmentation of Microplastics
8.1 Classifying Degradation
8.2 Weathering Under Laboratory Accelerated Conditions
8.2.1 The Light Source
8.2.2 Light Intensity and Temperature
8.3 Photo‐Oxidation Pathways of Common Plastics
8.3.1 Photo‐degradation of Polyethylene
8.3.1.1 Carbonyl Compound Products
8.3.2 Photodegradation of Polypropylene (PP)
8.3.3 Photodegradation of Polystyrene (PS)
8.4 Changes Accompanying Weathering of Plastics
8.5 Weathering of Plastics in the Marine Environment
8.6 Studies on Weathering of Plastics in Seawater
8.6.1 Retardation of Degradation in Seawater Relative to Air
8.6.2 Recent Research on Weathering in Seawater
8.7 Fragmentation of Plastics in Marine Weathering
8.7.1 Macro‐Fragmentation Into Mesoscale fragments
8.7.2 Micro‐Fragmentation by Surface Ablation
8.8 Conclusions
References
Notes
9 Pollutants Sorbed Onto Microplastics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pollutants Sorbed by MPs. 9.2.1 Organic Pollutants
9.2.1.1 Antibiotics
9.2.1.2 PAHs, PCBs, HCHs, and DDTs
9.2.1.3 Flame Retardants and Fuel Aromatics
9.2.1.4 Other Types of Pollutants
9.2.2 Metal Ions
9.3 Influencing Factors. 9.3.1 Effect of Polymer Type
9.3.2 Effect of the Extent of Weathering
9.3.3 Effect of pH and Ionic Strength
9.4 Sorption Kinetics and Isotherms
9.5 Sorption Mechanism
9.6 Conclusions
References
10 Colonization of Plastic Marine Debris: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Preamble
10.3 The Known. 10.3.1 What Do We Know About Who Lives in the Plastisphere – Phylogenetic Diversity?
10.4 The Unknown, but Knowable. 10.4.1 What Can We Know About the Functional Diversity of the Plastisphere?
10.4.2 What Role Does the Plastisphere Play in Vertical Transport of MPs?
10.4.3 What Roles Do Eukaryotes, Microbial Consortia, and Interactions Play in the Plastisphere?
10.4.4 What Is the Impact of Weathering on Plastic Colonization?
10.4.5 Is the Plastisphere a Hotspot for Horizontal Gene Transfer Regarding Antibiotic Resistance, Persistent Organic Pollutant Degradation, Metal Tolerance, and Pathogenicity?
10.4.6 How Do Plastisphere Communities Change During Transport and What Is the Community Turnover?
10.4.7 Can the Plastisphere Serve as a Platform for Applying Ecological Theory?
10.5 The Unknowable
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Marine Biodegradation of Common Plastics
11.1 The Marine Environment
11.1.1 Marine Biodegradation Mechanism
11.1.2 Impact of Buoyancy on Biodegradation
11.1.3 A Food Source or a Surface to Settle on?
11.1.4 Biodegradability of Common Plastics in the Ocean
11.2 Rates of Biodegradation of Common Plastics
11.2.1 Rapidly Biodegradable Plastics
11.2.2 Biodegradation of Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
11.3 Plastics That Are Effectively Nonbiodegradable: Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and Polystyrene
11.4 Assessing Biodegradation and Mineralization
11.4.1 Respirometry to Determine Biomineralization
11.4.2 Using Radiolabeled Polymers
11.5 Standardized Tests to Assess Biodegradation
References
Notes
12 Ingestion of Microplastics by Marine Animals
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Defining Harm
12.2 Ingestion of Microplastics by Marine Organisms
12.3 The Impacts of Microplastic Ingestion on Marine Organisms
12.3.1 Individual‐Level Impacts
12.3.2 Population‐Level Impacts
12.3.3 Ecosystem‐Level Impacts
12.4 Impacts of Plastic‐Associated Chemicals on Organisms
12.4.1 Laboratory Studies: Limitations and Discrepancies Between Laboratory and Field Observations
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Microplastics in Fish and Seafood Species
13.1 Introduction
13.2 How Microplastics Can Enter Seafood and Transfer to Humans
13.2.1 Seaweed and Aquatic Plants
13.2.2 Bivalves
13.2.3 Crustaceans
13.2.4 Other Invertebrate Species
13.2.5 Fish
13.2.6 Other Marine Vertebrates (Mammals and Sea Turtles)
13.3 Microplastics in the Seafood Supply Chain
13.3.1 Culture and Harvesting Conditions
13.3.2 Processing
13.3.3 Packaging
13.3.4 Transport
13.3.5 Cooking and Food Preparation
13.4 Consequences of Microplastics in Seafood
13.4.1 Producers and Consumers
13.4.2 Seafood Security
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Nanoplastics and the Marine Environment : The Unseen Majority?
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Aggregation Behavior of Nanomaterials and Nanoplastics
14.2 Interactions Between Nanoplastics and Marine Microbiota
14.2.1 Freshwater Proxies for Marine Nanoplastic Ecotoxicological Studies
14.3 Impact of Nanoplastics on Marine Phototrophic Microorganisms
14.3.1 Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity, and Cellular Stress Responses
14.3.2 Impacts on Photosynthetic Efficiency
14.3.3 Viability and Growth
14.3.4 Intracellular and External Aggregation
14.3.5 Additional Effects
14.4 Impact of Nanoplastics on Marine Heterotrophic Microorganisms
14.4.1 Cytotoxicity, Cellular Stress Responses, and Viability
14.4.2 Aggregation and Impacts on Community Composition and Biofilm Formation
14.5 Ecosystem Implications
14.6 Potential Effects of Nanoplastics on Humans
14.7 Outlook and Future Considerations
References
15 Human Behavior and Marine Plastic Pollution
15.1 Introduction: Human Behavior and Marine Plastic Pollution
15.1.1 Media and Problem Awareness
15.1.2 Complexities of the Human–Plastics Interaction
15.2 Human Behavior. 15.2.1 Antecedents of Behavior: Lessons from Environmental Psychology
Box 15.1 Methods in human behavior research
15.3 Scoping Review of Behavior Change Interventions 2015–2020
15.3.1 Business and Retail (10 Articles)
15.3.2 Tourism and Leisure (6 Articles)
15.3.3 Schools and Education (12 Articles)
15.3.4 Community (19 Articles)
15.4 Plastic Pollution and Behavior in the Global South
15.5 Research Gaps and Limitations. 15.5.1 Scoping Review
15.5.2 Public Acceptability
15.5.3 Economic Value of Behavior Change Interventions
15.6 Remaining Challenges
15.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
16 Legal and Policy Frameworks for Preventing and Reducing Marine Plastic Pollution
16.1 Introduction to the Governance of Plastic Pollution
16.1.1 Evolving Concepts of Marine Litter Governance
16.1.2 Industry Involvement
16.2 Overview of Legal and Policy Instruments. 16.2.1 International Instruments
16.2.1.1 Pollution Prevention
16.2.1.2 Chemicals and Waste
16.2.1.3 Biodiversity and Species Protection
16.2.2 Global Targets
16.3 Regional Instruments
16.3.1 The Regional Seas Programme
16.3.2 The European Union and Other Regional Economic Fora
16.3.2.1 Regional Targets
16.4 National Regulations and Policies
16.4.1 National Targets
16.5 Conclusion
References
Index. a
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