Plastics and the Ocean

Plastics and the Ocean
Автор книги: id книги: 2373356     Оценка: 0.0     Голосов: 0     Отзывы, комментарии: 0 20086,4 руб.     (216,93$) Читать книгу Купить и скачать книгу Купить бумажную книгу Электронная книга Жанр: Химия Правообладатель и/или издательство: John Wiley & Sons Limited Дата добавления в каталог КнигаЛит: ISBN: 9781119768418 Скачать фрагмент в формате   fb2   fb2.zip Возрастное ограничение: 0+ Оглавление Отрывок из книги

Реклама. ООО «ЛитРес», ИНН: 7719571260.

Описание книги

An insightful and multidisciplinary exploration of plastic pollutants in the ocean environment In Plastics and the Ocean , renowned researcher Anthony L. Andrady delivers a comprehensive and up-to-date treatment of the sources, characterization, and environmental impacts of plastics in the ocean. The book focuses on macroplastics as well as micro-scale and nanoscale plastics and the human impacts of these that reach consumers via seafood. It also addresses the human behavioral aspects of the problem via discussions of the mismanagement of urban litter. A diverse collection of expert perspectives is arranged logically and guides the reader through this fast-evolving multi-disciplinary subject area. Beginning with an overview of the field, the book goes on to explore the importance of this area of research to related disciplines and to the everyday lives of consumers. This text offers engineers and scientists an up-to-date review of the subject and the state of the art as summarized by key researchers in the field. The book includes: A synthesis of leading voices in oceanography, biogeochemistry, industrial chemistry, ecotoxicology, polymer science, and behavioral science Discussions of the impacts of a range of marine plastics, including large debris, microplastics, and nanoplastics A summary of the abundance and impacts of plastics in various niches in the marine environment Descriptions of the current methodologies for sampling, detection, processing, and identification of plastic waste Plastics and the Ocean is an indispensable resource for professionals, researchers, instructors, and graduate students in polymer science, marine biology, and environmental engineering. It’s also a must-read text for chemical engineers, materials scientists, and environmental engineers seeking a one-stop resource that describes the origins, occurrence, composition, environmental fate, and biological impacts of plastic pollutants in an ocean environment.

Оглавление

Группа авторов. Plastics and the Ocean

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Illustrations

Guide

Pages

Plastics and the Ocean: Origin, Characterization, Fate, and Impacts

List of Contributors

Preface

An Already Stressed Ocean

Is it a Cause for Concern?

How Much of a Threat do Plastics in the Ocean Pose?

Foreword

1 Plastics in the Anthropocene

1.1 What Are Plastics?

Box 1.1 Thermoplastics and Thermosets

1.2 Plastics at Present and in the Future

1.2.1 Plastics in the Ocean Environment

1.2.2 Microplastics in the Ocean

1.2.3 Chemicals in Plastic Debris

1.3 Ingestion of Microplastics Marine Organisms

Box 1.2 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

1.4 Sustainability of Plastics

1.4.1 Recycling of Post‐Use Plastics

1.4.2 Using Bio‐Based Feedstocks for Plastics

1.5 Plastic Manufacturing

1.6 Polymers: A Basic Introduction

1.6.1 Crystallinity in Plastics

1.6.2 Thermal Transitions

1.7 Societal Benefits of Plastics

1.7.1 Packaging Food and Beverage

Box 1.3 Paper or Plastic?

1.7.2 Plastics in Building

1.7.3 Plastics in Transportation

1.7.4 Plastics in Textile Fibers

1.7.5 Plastics in the Energy Industry

References

Notes

2 Plastic Additives in the Ocean

2.1 Function of Plastic Additive Classes

2.2 Functional Additives. 2.2.1 Plasticizers

2.2.2 Flame Retardants

2.2.3 Antioxidants

2.2.4 Heat Stabilizers

2.2.5 Impact Modifiers

2.2.6 Lubricants

2.2.7 Light Stabilizers

2.2.8 Colorants

2.2.9 Fillers and Reinforcements

2.3 Sources, Transport, and Fate of Additives in the Ocean

2.3.1 The Simple Release of Additives From Plastics to Water

2.3.2 The Complexity of Intentionally Added Versus Adsorbed Additives

2.3.3 The Complexity of Multiple Compartments

2.3.3.1 Transport of Plastic Additives to/From Marine Sediment

2.3.3.2 Transport of Plastic Additives to/From Marine Biota

2.4 Degradation of Plastic Additives in the Marine Environment

2.5 Detection in the Marine Environment

2.5.1 Plastic Samples

2.5.2 Abiotic Samples

2.5.3 Biotic Samples

2.6 Toxicity of Additives

2.7 NIST Disclaimer

References

3 Deconstructing the Plastic Soup : Methods to Identify and Quantify Marine Plastic Pollution Sources

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Methods for Determining Plastic Pollution Sources

3.2.1 Approach 1: Plastic Emission Rates. 3.2.1.1 Methodology Description

3.2.1.2 Open questions and missing data. 3.2.1.2.1 Determining Plastic Pollution Transport Coefficients

3.2.1.2.2 Bias in Sources Due to Available Data

3.2.1.3 Future Research Suggestions

3.2.2 Approach 2: Plastic Transport Models. 3.2.2.1 Methodology Description

3.2.2.2 Open Questions and Missing Data. 3.2.2.2.1 Integration of Transport Models

3.2.2.3 Suggestions for Future Research

3.2.3 Approach 3: Plastic Pollution Identification. 3.2.3.1 Methodology Description

3.2.3.1.1 Item Category

3.2.3.1.2 Release Location

3.2.3.1.3 Polymer Type

3.2.3.1.4 Geometry (and Other Numbers)

3.2.3.1.5 Language

3.2.3.1.6 Brand

3.2.3.1.7 Biofouling, Degradation, and Bitemarks

3.2.3.1.8 Date Stamps

3.2.3.2 Open Questions and Missing Data

3.2.3.3 Suggestions for Future Research

3.3 Discussion

3.3.1 Strategy 1 (Figure 3.4b): The Ferry Method—Input–Output Data Sharing

3.3.2 Strategy 2 (Figure 3.4c): The Bridge Method—Feedback between Methodologies

3.3.3 Strategy 3 (Figure 3.4d): The Polder Method—A Universal Plastic Pollution Model

3.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

4 Collection and Characterization of Microplastics Debris in Marine Ecosystems

4.1 Introduction

4.2 MP Sampling

4.2.1 Seawater

4.2.2 Beach Sediment

4.2.3 Macrophytes

4.2.4 Plankton

4.2.5 Shellfish and Fish Species

4.3 Sample Processing. 4.3.1 Physical Separation

4.3.2 Chemical Digestion

4.3.3 Novel Extraction and Isolation

4.4 Characterization and Quantification. 4.4.1 Physical Characterization. 4.4.1.1 Visual Identification

4.4.1.2 Microscopic Observation

4.4.1.3 Electron Microscopy

4.4.2 Chemical Characterization. 4.4.2.1 Infrared Spectroscopy

4.4.2.2 Mid‐infrared MP Characterization

4.4.2.3 Data Analysis for Mid‐infrared MP Characterization

4.4.2.4 NIR‐HSI for MP Characterization

4.4.2.5 Raman Microscopy

4.4.2.6 Chromatography

4.4.2.7 Thermogravimetric Analysis

4.4.3 Analytical Quality Assurance

4.5 Summary and Outlook

4.6 Conclusions

References

5 Estimating Microplastics in Deep Water

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Sampling Methods

5.3 Spatial Patterns of MPs in Water Columns. 5.3.1 Global Mapping of microplastic Research in the Deep Ocean

5.3.2 Modeling and Transport Simulations

5.4 The Export of Microplastics from the Surface Water to the Deep Sea

5.4.1 Intrinsic Properties of the Plastic Particle

5.4.2 Biofilm

5.4.3 Fecal Pellets

5.4.4 Marine Aggregates

5.4.5 Environmental Factors

5.5 Knowledge gaps and conclusion

References

6 Marine Litter, Plastic, and Microplastics on the Seafloor

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Methods Used to Monitor Seafloor Litter

6.3 Sources

6.4 Oceanographic Conditions on the Seafloor

6.5 Accumulation Areas of Litter at the Seafloor

6.6 Importance of ALDFG

6.7 Nature and Distribution of Seafloor Litter

6.8 Microplastics

6.9 Impacts

6.10 Trends and Monitoring

6.11 Management Measures and Perspectives

6.12 Conclusions and Perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

7 Plastics in Freshwater Bodies

7.1 Introduction

Box 7.1 The importance of defining and reporting upper and lower size detection limits in relation to monitoring methods

7.2 Monitoring of Plastics in Freshwater Bodies

7.2.1 Required Steps to Monitor Plastics in the Environment

7.3 Global Observational Efforts

7.3.1 In Search of all the Relevant Literature

7.3.2 Geographical Distribution of Freshwater Studies

7.3.3 Investigating Different Environmental Compartments

7.3.4 Size Class Focus: Dominance of Microplastic, Need for Macroplastic, and Absence of Nanoplastic

7.4 Modeling Plastics in Rivers and Lakes. 7.4.1 Predicting Inputs of Plastics in Freshwater Bodies

7.4.2 Modeling the Processes Influencing Transport and Fate of Plastics in Freshwater

7.4.3 Quantifying Plastic Outputs Into the Ocean

7.5 Prospects and Opportunities

7.5.1 Temporal Variability

7.5.2 Transfer Between Compartments

7.5.3 Plastic Size Investigations

7.5.4 Data Quality Control and Validation of Results

References

8 Degradation and Fragmentation of Microplastics

8.1 Classifying Degradation

8.2 Weathering Under Laboratory Accelerated Conditions

8.2.1 The Light Source

8.2.2 Light Intensity and Temperature

8.3 Photo‐Oxidation Pathways of Common Plastics

8.3.1 Photo‐degradation of Polyethylene

8.3.1.1 Carbonyl Compound Products

8.3.2 Photodegradation of Polypropylene (PP)

8.3.3 Photodegradation of Polystyrene (PS)

8.4 Changes Accompanying Weathering of Plastics

8.5 Weathering of Plastics in the Marine Environment

8.6 Studies on Weathering of Plastics in Seawater

8.6.1 Retardation of Degradation in Seawater Relative to Air

8.6.2 Recent Research on Weathering in Seawater

8.7 Fragmentation of Plastics in Marine Weathering

8.7.1 Macro‐Fragmentation Into Mesoscale fragments

8.7.2 Micro‐Fragmentation by Surface Ablation

8.8 Conclusions

References

Notes

9 Pollutants Sorbed Onto Microplastics

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Pollutants Sorbed by MPs. 9.2.1 Organic Pollutants

9.2.1.1 Antibiotics

9.2.1.2 PAHs, PCBs, HCHs, and DDTs

9.2.1.3 Flame Retardants and Fuel Aromatics

9.2.1.4 Other Types of Pollutants

9.2.2 Metal Ions

9.3 Influencing Factors. 9.3.1 Effect of Polymer Type

9.3.2 Effect of the Extent of Weathering

9.3.3 Effect of pH and Ionic Strength

9.4 Sorption Kinetics and Isotherms

9.5 Sorption Mechanism

9.6 Conclusions

References

10 Colonization of Plastic Marine Debris: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Preamble

10.3 The Known. 10.3.1 What Do We Know About Who Lives in the Plastisphere – Phylogenetic Diversity?

10.4 The Unknown, but Knowable. 10.4.1 What Can We Know About the Functional Diversity of the Plastisphere?

10.4.2 What Role Does the Plastisphere Play in Vertical Transport of MPs?

10.4.3 What Roles Do Eukaryotes, Microbial Consortia, and Interactions Play in the Plastisphere?

10.4.4 What Is the Impact of Weathering on Plastic Colonization?

10.4.5 Is the Plastisphere a Hotspot for Horizontal Gene Transfer Regarding Antibiotic Resistance, Persistent Organic Pollutant Degradation, Metal Tolerance, and Pathogenicity?

10.4.6 How Do Plastisphere Communities Change During Transport and What Is the Community Turnover?

10.4.7 Can the Plastisphere Serve as a Platform for Applying Ecological Theory?

10.5 The Unknowable

10.6 Conclusion

References

11 Marine Biodegradation of Common Plastics

11.1 The Marine Environment

11.1.1 Marine Biodegradation Mechanism

11.1.2 Impact of Buoyancy on Biodegradation

11.1.3 A Food Source or a Surface to Settle on?

11.1.4 Biodegradability of Common Plastics in the Ocean

11.2 Rates of Biodegradation of Common Plastics

11.2.1 Rapidly Biodegradable Plastics

11.2.2 Biodegradation of Poly(ethylene terephthalate)

11.3 Plastics That Are Effectively Nonbiodegradable: Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and Polystyrene

11.4 Assessing Biodegradation and Mineralization

11.4.1 Respirometry to Determine Biomineralization

11.4.2 Using Radiolabeled Polymers

11.5 Standardized Tests to Assess Biodegradation

References

Notes

12 Ingestion of Microplastics by Marine Animals

12.1 Introduction

12.1.1 Defining Harm

12.2 Ingestion of Microplastics by Marine Organisms

12.3 The Impacts of Microplastic Ingestion on Marine Organisms

12.3.1 Individual‐Level Impacts

12.3.2 Population‐Level Impacts

12.3.3 Ecosystem‐Level Impacts

12.4 Impacts of Plastic‐Associated Chemicals on Organisms

12.4.1 Laboratory Studies: Limitations and Discrepancies Between Laboratory and Field Observations

12.5 Conclusion

References

13 Microplastics in Fish and Seafood Species

13.1 Introduction

13.2 How Microplastics Can Enter Seafood and Transfer to Humans

13.2.1 Seaweed and Aquatic Plants

13.2.2 Bivalves

13.2.3 Crustaceans

13.2.4 Other Invertebrate Species

13.2.5 Fish

13.2.6 Other Marine Vertebrates (Mammals and Sea Turtles)

13.3 Microplastics in the Seafood Supply Chain

13.3.1 Culture and Harvesting Conditions

13.3.2 Processing

13.3.3 Packaging

13.3.4 Transport

13.3.5 Cooking and Food Preparation

13.4 Consequences of Microplastics in Seafood

13.4.1 Producers and Consumers

13.4.2 Seafood Security

13.5 Conclusion

References

14 Nanoplastics and the Marine Environment : The Unseen Majority?

14.1 Introduction

14.1.1 Aggregation Behavior of Nanomaterials and Nanoplastics

14.2 Interactions Between Nanoplastics and Marine Microbiota

14.2.1 Freshwater Proxies for Marine Nanoplastic Ecotoxicological Studies

14.3 Impact of Nanoplastics on Marine Phototrophic Microorganisms

14.3.1 Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity, and Cellular Stress Responses

14.3.2 Impacts on Photosynthetic Efficiency

14.3.3 Viability and Growth

14.3.4 Intracellular and External Aggregation

14.3.5 Additional Effects

14.4 Impact of Nanoplastics on Marine Heterotrophic Microorganisms

14.4.1 Cytotoxicity, Cellular Stress Responses, and Viability

14.4.2 Aggregation and Impacts on Community Composition and Biofilm Formation

14.5 Ecosystem Implications

14.6 Potential Effects of Nanoplastics on Humans

14.7 Outlook and Future Considerations

References

15 Human Behavior and Marine Plastic Pollution

15.1 Introduction: Human Behavior and Marine Plastic Pollution

15.1.1 Media and Problem Awareness

15.1.2 Complexities of the Human–Plastics Interaction

15.2 Human Behavior. 15.2.1 Antecedents of Behavior: Lessons from Environmental Psychology

Box 15.1 Methods in human behavior research

15.3 Scoping Review of Behavior Change Interventions 2015–2020

15.3.1 Business and Retail (10 Articles)

15.3.2 Tourism and Leisure (6 Articles)

15.3.3 Schools and Education (12 Articles)

15.3.4 Community (19 Articles)

15.4 Plastic Pollution and Behavior in the Global South

15.5 Research Gaps and Limitations. 15.5.1 Scoping Review

15.5.2 Public Acceptability

15.5.3 Economic Value of Behavior Change Interventions

15.6 Remaining Challenges

15.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

16 Legal and Policy Frameworks for Preventing and Reducing Marine Plastic Pollution

16.1 Introduction to the Governance of Plastic Pollution

16.1.1 Evolving Concepts of Marine Litter Governance

16.1.2 Industry Involvement

16.2 Overview of Legal and Policy Instruments. 16.2.1 International Instruments

16.2.1.1 Pollution Prevention

16.2.1.2 Chemicals and Waste

16.2.1.3 Biodiversity and Species Protection

16.2.2 Global Targets

16.3 Regional Instruments

16.3.1 The Regional Seas Programme

16.3.2 The European Union and Other Regional Economic Fora

16.3.2.1 Regional Targets

16.4 National Regulations and Policies

16.4.1 National Targets

16.5 Conclusion

References

Index. a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

k

l

m

n

o

p

q

r

s

t

u

v

w

z

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

Отрывок из книги

Edited by

Anthony L. Andrady

.....

With polymers synthesized by polycondensation of two monomers, one monomer can be bio‐based while the other is derived from fossil‐fuel feedstock, leading to a hybrid or a partially bio‐based plastic. This is the case with hybrid poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) resin that is popularly used in “green” beverage bottles in the market, that are only about 22% bio‐based; the ethylene glycol monomer is bio‐based while terephthalic acid is derived from fossil fuel (Figure 1.8).

There is confusion in the literature as to how the environmental biodegradability of plastics might relate to the above categorization. The biodegradability of plastics in a biotic environment is determined by their chemical structure; the polymer molecule must have main‐chain bonds that are hydrolyzable by enzymes secreted by the microorganisms in the relevant environment. There is no relationship between the source of feedstock and the biodegradability of the resin, as seen from Table 1.3 and Figure 1.9. Biopolymers such as cellulose or chitin have been in the environment for a very long time allowing biochemical pathways that degrade these to evolve and therefore they tend to be biodegradable. This is not the case with synthetic man‐nade plastics that have existed in the environment only since the beginning of the anthropocene. Some authors (Brizga et al. 2020) confusingly include blends of a synthetic polymer with a degradable additive such as starch under “biodegradable” plastics. In these materials such as blends of starch/PE, the polymer component does not biodegrade appreciably.

.....

Добавление нового отзыва

Комментарий Поле, отмеченное звёздочкой  — обязательно к заполнению

Отзывы и комментарии читателей

Нет рецензий. Будьте первым, кто напишет рецензию на книгу Plastics and the Ocean
Подняться наверх