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Оглавление1 IntroductionFIGURE P.1 Number of publications since 1984 based on Web of Science search ...
2 Chapter 1FIGURE 1.1 Two enantiomeric forms of lactic acid: (S)‐ and (R)‐2‐hydroxyprop...FIGURE 1.2 Lactic acid condensation reactions: interchange between lactide, ...FIGURE 1.3 During conversion of glucose to pyruvate, chemical energy (ATP) i...FIGURE 1.4 Lactic acid formation from pyruvate: reoxidation of NADH and NAD ...FIGURE 1.5 Simplified block scheme of traditional lactic acid production pro...FIGURE 1.6 The three diastereomeric structures of lactide (3,6‐dimethyl‐1,4‐...FIGURE 1.7 Schematic illustration of lactide manufacture by thermal catalyti...FIGURE 1.8 Ring‐opening polymerization of lactide to PLA initiated by an alc...FIGURE 1.9 Equilibrium reaction of tin octoate with alcohol initiator or imp...
3 Chapter 2FIGURE 2.1 Selected vapor pressures of anhydrous lactic acid selected from l...FIGURE 2.2 Chemical structure of lactic acid and lactoyllactic acid.FIGURE 2.3 Chemical reaction between lactic acid and lactoyllactic acid.FIGURE 2.4 Left axis—total titratable acidity tabulated by Holten [28] from ...FIGURE 2.5 The percent equivalent monomer lactic acid for L1 through L4. Ope...FIGURE 2.6 Parity plot of p values determined by two methods as explained in...FIGURE 2.7 VLE data for lactic acid + water at 101.33 kPa as reported by Vu ...FIGURE 2.8 Comparison of aqueous lactic acid density calculated using Equati...FIGURE 2.9 Comparison of viscosity calculated using Equations 2.29–2.31 with...FIGURE 2.10 Comparison of viscosity calculated using Equations 2.29–2.31 wit...
4 Chapter 3FIGURE 3.1 Manufacturing routes for lactic‐acid‐based polymers.FIGURE 3.2 Theoretical relation between concentration of chain terminator an...FIGURE 3.3 Schematic description of the solid‐state polycondensation.FIGURE 3.4 Chain‐extension reactions of LA‐based prepolymers using diisocyan...FIGURE 3.5 Chain‐extension reactions of LA‐based prepolymers using bis‐2‐oxa...FIGURE 3.6 Chain‐extension reactions of LA‐based prepolymers using bis‐epoxi...
5 Chapter 4FIGURE 4.1 Structures explored as comonomers with lactide monomer. (a) GA, (...FIGURE 4.2 Structures of catalysts used in lactide polymerization.FIGURE 4.3 Polyol cores used for synthesis of different architecture in lact...FIGURE 4.4 Representative structure of triblock copolymer based on LLA and P...FIGURE 4.5 Schematic diagram of the synthesis of ABA triblock copolymer usin...FIGURE 4.6 Synthetic route for the preparation of cholesterol–PEG–PDLA [37]....FIGURE 4.7 Synthesis of protected and deprotected block copolymers. Polymeri...FIGURE 4.8 Star‐shaped copolymers of LA [119].FIGURE 4.9 Representative structure of multiblock copolymers based on LLA an...FIGURE 4.10 Reaction sequence for preparation of PNIPAAm‐b‐PLA [72].FIGURE 4.11 Synthesis of 3‐alkylthiophene and LLA‐based block copolymer [127...FIGURE 4.12 Synthesis of oxanorbornenes and LA‐based copolymers [145].FIGURE 4.13 Synthetic route for the preparation of branched PLLA.FIGURE 4.14 Reaction scheme of enzymatic polymerization [154].FIGURE 4.15 Synthesis of macromonomers.FIGURE 4.16 Structure of LA‐ and DMS‐based macromonomers and macroinitiators...FIGURE 4.17 Hydroxy end‐functionalized star‐shaped PCL macroinitiators [56]....FIGURE 4.18 Common routes to synthesize random and alternating PLGA and typi...
6 Chapter 5FIGURE 5.1 Stereoblock PLA formation from rac‐LA in a single step.FIGURE 5.2 Two‐step ROP for the synthesis of di‐sb‐PLA.FIGURE 5.3 Two‐step ROP for the synthesis of tri‐sb PLA followed by chain ex...FIGURE 5.4 Schematic representation of the methods adopted for developing sb...FIGURE 5.5 Applications of the sc‐PLA‐based copolymers and composites.
7 Chapter 6FIGURE 6.1 Sample preparations and phase transitions of the various crystal ...FIGURE 6.2 2D‐WAXD patterns of PLLA (a) mesophase, (b) δ form, (c) α...FIGURE 6.3 Crystal structure of PLLA α form. The space group is P1211. No sy...FIGURE 6.4 Comparison between the observed (broken line) and calculated (sol...FIGURE 6.5 (a) Comparison of the observed 00l reflection profile with the ca...FIGURE 6.6 Temperature dependence of the 1D WAXD profile measured in the pha...FIGURE 6.7 Observed X‐ray 00l reflection profiles of PLLA α and δ ...FIGURE 6.8 Crystal structure of PLLA β form (model 2).FIGURE 6.9 Comparison of the observed X‐ray diffraction profiles with those ...FIGURE 6.10 Temperature dependence of 2D X‐ray diffraction patterns of the o...FIGURE 6.11 The temperature dependence of the crystallite size estimated for...FIGURE 6.12 (a) and (b) Time dependence of normalized intensity of the cryst...FIGURE 6.13 The 2D WAXD patterns measured at 25°C for the uniaxially oriente...FIGURE 6.14 Temperature dependence of 2D X‐ray diffraction pattern of highly...FIGURE 6.15 (a) Comparison of the unit cell ab‐plane structure between the α...FIGURE 6.16 (a) and (b) Various chain packing modes of PLA stereocomplex wit...FIGURE 6.17 Temperature dependence of X‐ray diffraction profiles of the solu...FIGURE 6.18 2‐Dimensional X‐ray diffraction diagrams of the uniaxially orien...FIGURE 6.19 Crystal structure of PLLA (L)/PDLA (R) stereocomplex. One lattic...FIGURE 6.20 (a) Comparison of the observed X‐ray diffraction profiles along ...FIGURE 6.21 (a) IR circular dichroism ΔAbs and IR spectra measured for ...FIGURE 6.22 A model of stereocomplex formation from the solution cast L/D bl...FIGURE 6.23 (a) Chain conformation and (b) chain packing mode obtained for t...FIGURE 6.24 The 2D X‐ray diffraction patterns of PHB. (a) The mixture of the...FIGURE 6.25 (a) Images of the higher‐order structure of the α and β...FIGURE 6.26 (a) (A) polarized optical microscopic image and (B) and (C) SEM ...
8 Chapter 7FIGURE 7.1 Percent transmission versus wavelength for PLA (98% L‐lactide), P...FIGURE 7.2 Index of refraction for PLA as a function of wavelength from a gl...FIGURE 7.3 Infrared spectra of poly(L‐lactic acid)s: PLA 100 (semicrystallin...FIGURE 7.4 Infrared spectra of semicrystalline 98 : 2 (L : D)poly(lactic aci...FIGURE 7.5 Infrared spectra of amorphous 80 : 20 (L : D)poly(lactic acid) [4...FIGURE 7.6 Infrared spectra of L‐crystalline (L‐C), L‐amorphous (L‐A), and r...FIGURE 7.7 VSFG spectra of the delocalized modes of L‐crystalline (L‐C), L‐a...FIGURE 7.8 FTIR spectra (a) and corresponding second derivatives (b) in the ...FIGURE 7.9 Raman spectra of poly(L‐lactic acid)s: PLA 100 (semicrystalline),...FIGURE 7.10 Raman spectrum of a 4.1% D‐PLA unoriented cast film.FIGURE 7.11 Raman spectrum of a 4.1% D‐PLA‐oriented cast film.FIGURE 7.12 Diagram illustrating the alternative interpretation of 1H and 13 FIGURE 7.13 1H and 13C solution NMR spectra of PLA synthesized using 5% L‐la...FIGURE 7.14 13C NMR spectra of PLA synthesized using (a) 5% fully 13C‐labele...FIGURE 7.15 (a) Methine resonances in the 13C NMR spectra of poly(lactide) s...
9 Chapter 8FIGURE 8.1 Differential scanning calorimetry thermograms of amorphous PLLA a...FIGURE 8.2 DSC thermal cycles of PLLA 200 kDa (first heating, cooling, and s...FIGURE 8.3 Effect of annealing time on crystallinity of compression‐molded P...FIGURE 8.4 Tm of PLLA (▾) and Tg of PLLA (•) and PDLLA (⚬) polymer as a func...FIGURE 8.5 Storage modulus E′, loss modulus E″, and damping tan δ of PDLLA. ...FIGURE 8.6 Storage modulus E′, loss modulus E″, and damping tan δ of PLLA wi...FIGURE 8.7 Effect of crystallinity on the intensity of the transition S of c...FIGURE 8.8 Storage modulus E′ and damping factor tan δ of PLLA samples at va...FIGURE 8.9 Height (▵) and width (▾) of damping peak of PLLA as a function of...FIGURE 8.10 Radius growth rate G as function of crystallization temperature FIGURE 8.11 Crystallinity of melt‐spun PLLA fiber drawn at 160°C (⚬) and cry...FIGURE 8.12 DSC curves of melt‐spun PLLA fibers collected at different rates...FIGURE 8.13 First and second DSC scans of as‐spun PLLA fibers produced by so...FIGURE 8.14 DSC thermograms of solution‐spun fibers after drawing at various...FIGURE 8.15 Effect of composition on T g, T m (a), and crystallinity (b) of L‐...FIGURE 8.16 T g and T m of poly‐L‐D,L‐lactide as a function of D,L‐lactide con...FIGURE 8.17 DSC thermograms of selected commercial pellets (a), PLA products...FIGURE 8.18 Crystallinity percentage (▵, ▴) and molecular weight (⚪, ⚫) as a...
10 Chapter 9FIGURE 9.1 Stockmayer–Fixman plots, reconstructed from published Mark–Houwin...FIGURE 9.2 Stockmayer–Fixman plots for three separate solvents from the stud...FIGURE 9.3 Stereochemistry of L, D, and D,L‐PLA backbones.FIGURE 9.4 Element undergoing shear deformation due to an applied force.FIGURE 9.5 Effect of changing the zero shear viscosity parameter in the HN m...FIGURE 9.6 Effect of changing the characteristic time parameter in the HN mo...FIGURE 9.7 Effect of changing α, the breadth parameter, in the HN model.FIGURE 9.8 Effect of changing the high‐frequency ν parameter in the HN model...FIGURE 9.9 Master curves for an amorphous PLA sample with a weight‐average m...FIGURE 9.10 Scaling of the zero shear viscosity against molecular weight for...
11 Chapter 10FIGURE 10.1 Dynamic mechanical spectrum of poly(L‐lactic acid) Resomer L 214...FIGURE 10.2 Influence of aging on the dynamic mechanical spectrum of PLLA. A...FIGURE 10.3 Polarizing micrographs of crack behavior of PLA: (a) quenched st...FIGURE 10.4 Polarized micrographs of PLLA annealed microstructures: (a) 70°C...FIGURE 10.5 Tensile stress‐stain behavior of neat PLA compared with that of ...FIGURE 10.6 Brittle fracture of amorphous PLA: (a) specimen before deformati...FIGURE 10.7 Stress–strain curves for blend film and nonblended PLLA film. Th...FIGURE 10.8 Representative polarizing microscopic photographs of 1 : 1 PLLA:...FIGURE 10.9 (a) Storage modulus curves as a function of temperature from DMA...FIGURE 10.10 Tensile mechanical properties of TPS/PLA (70w/30w) blends with ...FIGURE 10.11 The processing‐morphology‐tensile properties relationship of PL...FIGURE 10.12 (a) Elongation at break, (b) impact strength, (c) tensile stren...
12 Chapter 11FIGURE 11.1 Comparisons of permeability coefficients (P) of O2, CO2, and N2 ...FIGURE 11.2 Permeation of permeant molecules from a higher to a lower chemic...FIGURE 11.3 Arrhenius plot of permeability coefficients (P) of O2, CO2, N2, ...FIGURE 11.4 Arrhenius plots of diffusion coefficients (D) for O2, CO2, N2, a...FIGURE 11.5 Arrhenius plots of solubility coefficients (S) for O2, CO2, N2, ...FIGURE 11.6 Permeability coefficients of oxygen ( ) in PLA films between 5 ...FIGURE 11.7 (a–c) , , and measured at 23°C and 0% RH shown in origina...FIGURE 11.8 Arrhenius plots of water vapor permeability coefficients ( ) in...FIGURE 11.9 P of different volatile organic compounds in PLA films grouped b...FIGURE 11.10 Correlation between the molecular volume of the permeants and t...FIGURE 11.11 Gas permeabilities of PLA and PLA/organoclay (Cloisite 30B) wit...
13 Chapter 12FIGURE 12.1 Chemical structures of lactic acid, linear dimer of lactic acid ...
14 Chapter 13FIGURE 13.1 Comparison of glass transition and melting temperatures of PLA w...FIGURE 13.2 Typical closed‐loop dual‐bed regenerative desiccant‐type dryer f...FIGURE 13.3 Plots of molecular weight loss of PLA versus time under differen...FIGURE 13.4 Effects of twin‐screw extruder temperature and screw rotation sp...FIGURE 13.5 (a) Typical geometries of a screw for single‐screw extruder; (b)...FIGURE 13.6 Typical cycle events for an injection molding process.FIGURE 13.7 PVT plots for PLA polymers (NatureWorks LLC, 4.25% D‐isomer) [57...FIGURE 13.8 Effects of temperature and time on the aging of injection‐molded...FIGURE 13.9 Biaxially oriented extrusion cast film machine and typical tempe...FIGURE 13.10 Comparison of PLA films' mechanical properties.FIGURE 13.11 Effects of strain rate, temperature, and mode of biaxial orient...FIGURE 13.12 (a) DSC thermograms of PLA films prepared at different melt‐dra...FIGURE 13.13 Injection‐stretch‐blow molding cycle of PLA bottle: (a) preform...FIGURE 13.14 Blow film extruder and key process parameters. V f: take‐up spee...FIGURE 13.15 Thermoforming of heated PLA sheet over a negative mold using pl...FIGURE 13.16 Schematic representation of melt spinning setup: (1) extruder d...FIGURE 13.17 Stress–strain plots of the high‐speed‐spun PLA fibers.FIGURE 13.18 Schematic representations of immersion‐jet wet spinning (a); dr...FIGURE 13.19 Effect of chloroform/toluene ratio in the PLLA (viscosity‐avera...FIGURE 13.20 (a) Dependence of the tensile strength on the draw ratio for tw...FIGURE 13.21 Schematic representations of typical single‐spinneret (a) and f...FIGURE 13.22 SEM micrographs of electrospun PLA fibers. Spin dope solutions ...FIGURE 13.23 Typical printing extruder head configuration for the fused fila...
15 Chapter 14FIGURE 14.1 Representation of different morphologies developed during melt b...FIGURE 14.2 Scanning electron micrographs of cryofractured surfaces of (a) 8...FIGURE 14.3 SEM images of 80/20 wt% PLLA/LLDPE2 impact bar fracture surfaces...FIGURE 14.4 Gradient porous structure from 1‐D thermal gradient: (a) overall...FIGURE 14.5 TEM images (scale bar = 2 μm) of the PLA/EVA (80/20) blends with...FIGURE 14.6 TEM image of (a) uncompatibilized PLLA/ABS = 50/50 blend, (b) PL...FIGURE 14.7 Cryofractured surface morphology of PLA/TPO (80/20) blend: (a) w...FIGURE 14.8 Optical micrographs of PLA/PMMA 70/30 blend: during (a) and at t...FIGURE 14.9 (a) DSC thermogram in the second heating runs for solution/preci...FIGURE 14.10 Polarized optical micrographs of PLA/PVAc blends, isothermally ...FIGURE 14.11 Ternary phase diagrams obtained by turbidity measurements at ro...FIGURE 14.12 Comparison of the difference in optimum particle size for tough...FIGURE 14.13 (a) Trend of MFR as a function of PBSA content; (b) trend of to...FIGURE 14.14 SEM and FE‐SEM images of the cryo‐surfaces of the PLLA/PBSL ble...FIGURE 14.15 Optical microphotograph of the typical multi‐reservoir‐type mic...FIGURE 14.16 SEM images (scale bar = 10 μm) of cryo‐fracture surfaces o...FIGURE 14.17 Chemical reactions of the PLA‐starch (TPS) crosslinking process...FIGURE 14.18 SEM micrographs after removing TPCS domains by acid etching of ...FIGURE 14.19 SEM images of PLA, physical, and reactive blends: (a) PLA, (b) ...FIGURE 14.20 SEM micrographs of various PLA/TPS blends (70/30 by wt) after a...FIGURE 14.21 (a) SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surfaces (in MD), (b) ...FIGURE 14.22 Stress–strain plots for neat PLA, PLA/PPG4 (M w = 425 g/mol), PL...FIGURE 14.23 Cross sections of the PLA/PEG 70/30 blend as viewed in the pola...FIGURE 14.24 SEM micrographs of the fracture surfaces of the samples: cross‐...
16 Chapter 15FIGURE 15.1 Schematic of a batch microcellular foaming process (a) gas satur...FIGURE 15.2 SEM micrographs of amorphous PLA (8302D, NatureWorks, 10% D‐lact...FIGURE 15.3 Dependence of cell size and cell density of PLA (NatureWorks 300...FIGURE 15.4 Effects of foaming time and foaming temperature on the density o...FIGURE 15.5 Master plot of density versus T f + ΔT g (reduced foaming temper...FIGURE 15.6 SEM micrographs (×200) of neat PLA (a) and PLA branched with 0.5...FIGURE 15.7 Schematic of the extrusion foaming system.FIGURE 15.8 Effect of processing temperature profile levels on the cell morp...FIGURE 15.9 SEM of amorphous PLA 8302D (NatureWorks, 10% D‐lactic acid conte...FIGURE 15.10 Effect of endothermic CFA (BIH40) content on the density of amo...FIGURE 15.11 Effect of rotational screw speed on the density of amorphous PL...
17 Chapter 16FIGURE 16.1 (a) Computer model, (b) cut‐section of computer model, and (c) 3...FIGURE 16.2 Schematic diagram of hybrid nanogenerator (NG): (a) Schematic of...FIGURE 16.3 Number of research articles published on PLA‐based nanocomposite...FIGURE 16.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication of nacre inspired ...FIGURE 16.5 Schematic illustration representing mechanism for fracture tough...FIGURE 16.6 3D scanned and printed models of wrist splints of (a) gypsum PLA...FIGURE 16.7 Visual observation of pristine PLA and PLA‐based nanocomposites ...FIGURE 16.8 Photographs displaying the thermo‐responsive shape memory effect...FIGURE 16.9 (a) 3D‐printed TPU/PLA/GO nanocomposites, (b) deformability of t...FIGURE 16.10 MWCNT/PLA microneedle‐based sensor for dermal biosensing, (from...
18 Chapter 17FIGURE 17.1 (a) The schematic diagram of eccentric rotor extrusion system: (...FIGURE 17.2 (a) Schematic of multistage stretching extrusion system; (b) the...FIGURE 17.3 (a, b) Transmission electron microscope images of PLAN3 (3 wt% a...
19 Chapter 18FIGURE 18.1 Diameter profiles of the spin‐lines of (a) PLA‐L, (b) PLA‐M, and...FIGURE 18.2 Wide‐angle x‐ray diffraction patterns of as‐spun PLA‐L, PLA‐M, a...FIGURE 18.3 Effect of take‐up velocity on birefringence of as‐spun PLA‐L, PL...FIGURE 18.4 Differential scanning calorimetry thermograms of as‐spun PLA‐L, ...FIGURE 18.5 Comparison of modulated‐DSC thermograms and lattice spacing vari...FIGURE 18.6 Wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction patterns of as‐spun r‐PLA fibers pr...FIGURE 18.7 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermograms of as‐spun r...FIGURE 18.8 Variations of the amount (crystallinity index) of α‐form an...FIGURE 18.9 Schematic diagrams of the spinning packs for producing (a) C/S (...FIGURE 18.10 Variations of birefringence with take‐up velocity for (a) sheat...FIGURE 18.11 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermograms of as‐spun ...FIGURE 18.12 Wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction patterns of as‐spun fibers with C/...
20 Chapter 19FIGURE 19.1 Light and high‐energy radiations.FIGURE 19.2 Electron transitions between molecular orbitals. Note: The dista...FIGURE 19.3 (a–c) Various excited states of PLA.FIGURE 19.4 (a–n) Ionization of molecules through unselective strong interac...FIGURE 19.5 PLA decomposition by UV light according to McNeill and Leiper [1...FIGURE 19.6 (a and b) Main chain scission of PLLA via Norrish type I and II ...FIGURE 19.7 Photodegradability of biodegradable polyesters according to Tsuj...FIGURE 19.8 (a and b) Mechanism A and B of photodegradation of PLLA under UV...FIGURE 19.9 Radical oxidation process of irradiated PLA samples, cited with ...FIGURE 19.10 ESR spectra of PLA/TMPD at 77 K: (a) after irradiation at 77 K ...FIGURE 19.11 (a–d) Production of TMPD+˙ radical cations (a), main chain scis...FIGURE 19.12 Production of (I) main chain radicals, (II) scission radicals, ...FIGURE 19.13 Simulation of the ESR spectrum: (a) ESR spectrum of PLA γ‐irrad...FIGURE 19.14 SEM photographs of UV‐irradiated (60 h) and nonirradiated (0 h)...
21 Chapter 20FIGURE 20.1 Thermal degradation mechanisms of PLLA.FIGURE 20.2 Thermogravimetric curves of PLLA/PS (50 : 50 wt/wt) and PLLA/PS/...FIGURE 20.3 TGA profile of PLLA/PS (50 : 50 wt/wt) at 1 K/min in a constant ...FIGURE 20.4 TGA profile of PLLA/PS/MgO = 50 : 50 : 5 (wt/wt/wt) at 1 K/min i...FIGURE 20.5 TGA profiles of commercially available PLLA measured at various ...FIGURE 20.6 Changes in E value on thermal degradation of commercially availa...FIGURE 20.7 Plots of log{−log[1 − (1 − w)0.5]} vs 1/T for thermogravimetric ...FIGURE 20.8 TGA profile of commercially available PLLA at a heating rate of ...FIGURE 20.9 TGA profile of commercially available PLLA at a heating rate of ...FIGURE 20.10 TGA profile of commercially available PLLA at a heating rate of...FIGURE 20.11 TGA profile of commercially available PLLA at a heating rate of...
22 Chapter 21FIGURE 21.1 Molecular structures of linear homopolymers and copolymers of la...FIGURE 21.2 Hydrolytic chain cleavage mechanisms of PLLA in alkaline (a) and...FIGURE 21.3 Expected processes of hydrolytic degradation of water‐insoluble ...FIGURE 21.4 Hydrolytic degradation mechanisms of bulky PLA materials: (a) su...FIGURE 21.5 Schematic representation of the hydrolytic degradation behavior ...FIGURE 21.6 Schematic representation of spherulitic structure [356] .FIGURE 21.7 Schematic representation of structures of crystallized PLA mater...FIGURE 21.8 GPC profiles of crystallized PLLA films hydrolytically degraded ...FIGURE 21.9 M n change of PLLA crystalline residues during the course of hyd...FIGURE 21.10 T m of crystallized PLLA films crystallized at different temper...FIGURE 21.11 GPC profiles of crystallized PLLA films hydrolytically degraded...FIGURE 21.12 Arrhenius plots of PLLA, P(R‐3HB), PCL, PBS, and PBSA in the me...FIGURE 21.13 M n change of amorphous PLLA having high and low molecular weig...FIGURE 21.14 M n change of PLLA films having different initial crystallinity...FIGURE 21.15 Schematic representation of completely amorphous and crystalliz...FIGURE 21.16 Crystallinity (X c) change of PLLA films having different initi...FIGURE 21.17 Glass transition (T g) and melting temperature (T m) changes of...FIGURE 21.18 Advancing contact angle ( θ a) change during alkaline hyd...FIGURE 21.19 Scanning electron photomicrographs of PLLA films containing sph...FIGURE 21.20 Polarized optical photomicrographs of PLLA films containing sph...FIGURE 21.21 Schematic representation of alkaline treatment and graft polyme...FIGURE 21.22 M n of PLLA hydrolytically degraded in the melt as a function o...FIGURE 21.23 Yields of lactic acid from PLLA during hydrolytic degradation a...
23 Chapter 22FIGURE 22.1 Enzymatic degradation and microbial metabolism.FIGURE 22.2 Spherulite structure and lamellar crystals in polymeric material...FIGURE 22.3 Enzymatic hydrolysis rate of PLLA films as a function of the inv...FIGURE 22.4 Enzymatic hydrolysis rate of PLLA films as a function of the ini...FIGURE 22.5 Enzymatic hydrolysis rate of PLA stereocopolymer films as functi...FIGURE 22.6 Enzymatic hydrolysis rate of (a) enantiomeric blend films from P...FIGURE 22.7 Advancing contact angles (θa) with water on the surface of end‐c...FIGURE 22.8 Weight loss of amorphous film of PLLA end capped with alkyl este...FIGURE 22.9 Scanning electron micrographs of the surfaces (a, c, e, g, i, k)...FIGURE 22.10 Scanning electron micrographs of ultrahigh‐molecular‐weight PHB...FIGURE 22.11 AFM amplitude images of PLLA thin films (crystallized at 160°C)...FIGURE 22.12 AFM amplitude images of PLLA thin film (120 nm in thickness) cr...FIGURE 22.13 AFM height images of PLLA thin films (crystallized at 160°C for...FIGURE 22.14 AFM height and phase images of (a) PLLA amorphous thin film bef...FIGURE 22.15 Dependence of enzymatic erosion rate (▪) and adsorbed enzymes (...FIGURE 22.16 Continuous AFM height images of PLLA monolayer (M n = 84,000 Da)...FIGURE 22.17 AFM height images of PLLA thin films before (a and c) and after...FIGURE 22.18 Electron micrographs after shadowing with a Pt–Pd alloy of PLLA...FIGURE 22.19 Time‐dependent changes in the absorbance at 210 nm of the react...FIGURE 22.20 (a) Electron micrograph of PLLA single crystals suspended in 50...FIGURE 22.21 Gel permeation chromatograms of PLLA single crystals before and...FIGURE 22.22 Electron micrograph of PLLA/PDLA stereocomplex formed by thin f...FIGURE 22.23 Substrate specificity of PLA‐ and related polyester‐degrading e...FIGURE 22.24. Enzymatic degradation of PLLA and PDLA emulsion. (a) Proteinas...
24 Chapter 23FIGURE 23.1 Generic life cycle stages.FIGURE 23.2 Life cycle flows for PLA production from corn.FIGURE 23.3 Corn wet mill coproducts. Note: CGF: corn gluten feed; CGM: corn...FIGURE 23.4 End‐of‐life process contribution for incineration and landfill....FIGURE 23.5 Life cycle environmental impacts of PLA.
25 Chapter 24FIGURE 24.1 Cradle‐to‐gate, cradle‐to‐grave, and cradle‐to‐cradle representi...FIGURE 24.2 Carbon cycle of polymers and environmental footprint (EFP) for P...FIGURE 24.3 Hierarchy of the waste management system showing the most effici...FIGURE 24.4 Steps and stakeholders required for a successful material recycl...FIGURE 24.5 Number average molecular weight (M n), and average molecular weig...FIGURE 24.6 Steps of the composting process in an industrial facility.FIGURE 24.7 Steps of the composting process in a home composting facility....FIGURE 24.8 Main steps of the polymer biodegradation.FIGURE 24.9 (a) CO2 evolution of blank, cellulose, and PLA film; (b) percent...FIGURE 24.10 Calorific values of several polymers and fuels.FIGURE 24.11 Global warming score based on a LCA for EoL scenarios of PLA....
26 Chapter 25FIGURE 25.1 3D PLLA square braid with intraarticular (IA) zone and bone atta...FIGURE 25.2 Reconstruction of an infraspinatus (IS) tendon by a PLLA felt (F...FIGURE 25.3 (a) SEM image of the rough interior of the pile‐finished PLLA fa...FIGURE 25.4 Image of X‐repair patch.FIGURE 25.5 Macroscopic and cross‐sectional SEM images of ABSORB BVS.FIGURE 25.6 PLLA mesh tray (for lower jawbone). The tray may be cut with sci...FIGURE 25.7 (a) Schematic diagram of screw implantation in rabbit tibia prox...FIGURE 25.8 (a) Design of the PLLA and stainless steel plates, (b) measured ...FIGURE 25.9 The piezoelectric constants (stress: e14•, and strain: d14⚬) of ...FIGURE 25.10 (a) Procedure for implantation of the PLLA rods into the intram...FIGURE 25.11 PLLA‐based (a) screws, (b) rods, and (c) miniplates.FIGURE 25.12 Schematic diagram of the paclitaxel‐loaded micelle formation....FIGURE 25.13 Macroscopic and SEM images of electrospun PLA conduits [161].FIGURE 25.14 PLA screw‐like scaffold created using 3D printing. (a) A 3D vie...
27 Chapter 26FIGURE 26.1 Classification of Ingeo PLA grades commercialized by NatureWorks...
28 Chapter 27FIGURE 27.1 Cross‐sectional view of sheath/core type of PLA bicomponent fibe...FIGURE 27.2 Cross‐sectional view of side‐by‐side type of PLA bicomponent fib...FIGURE 27.3 Relationship of yarn properties (tensile strength, Young's modul...FIGURE 27.4 Effects of take‐up speed during melt spinning on crystallinity a...FIGURE 27.5 Changes in the tensile strength, the weight and the relative vis...FIGURE 27.6 Aerobic biodegradation photographs of PLA fabric in compost at 5...FIGURE 27.7 Aerobic composting test result of PLA fibers according to ISO 14...FIGURE 27.8 Anaerobic digestion test result of PLA fibers according to ISO 1...FIGURE 27.9 Test results for water uptake and transport on PLA and PET fabri...FIGURE 27.10 Test results for flammability of the fabrics of PLA and PET in ...FIGURE 27.11 Accelerated weathering test result of PLA and PET fibers by Sun...FIGURE 27.12 PLA ground cover sheet for plants.FIGURE 27.13 PLA vertical drain sheets.FIGURE 27.14 PLA head rest covers.FIGURE 27.15 PLA tea bag filters.FIGURE 27.16 PLA body towels.FIGURE 27.17 PLA eco‐bags.FIGURE 27.18 3D‐printing PLA filaments and its 3D printings.
29 Chapter 28FIGURE 28.1 Outline of the solid‐phase denitrification process using biodegr...FIGURE 28.2 Bioremediation model of chlorinated ethenes via reductive dechlo...
