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Illustrations

1.1. “ ‘Atlas’ in Music,” in Puck. Humoristisch-Satyrische Wochenschrift (1877)

1.2. Venus’s all-purpose pink drapery lures Tannhäuser in Wolfgang Wagner’s production of Tannhäuser, act 1, scene 2 (Bayreuth, 1985)

1.3. Venus charms through layers of rose-colored bodily extensions in Nikolaus Lehnhoff’s staging of Tannhäuser, act 1, scene 2 (Festspielhaus Baden-Baden, 2008)

1.4. The Venusberg rendered as an inverted theatrical curtain in Werner Herzog’s production of Tannhäuser, act 1, scene 2 (Teatro San Carlo, Naples, 1998)

2.1. The Wagner curtain: draft of its mechanical construction by Walter Huneke

2.2. The Wagner curtain in 1897, framing the Bayreuth stage for Parsifal’s Grail temple in Wagner’s premiere production of 1882

3.1. Gong strikes at the beginning of Domenico Corri’s “dramatic opera” The Travellers, or Music’s Fascination (London, Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, 1806)

3.2. Tam-tam used in Paris for François-Joseph Gossec’s Marche lugubre (1790) as part of the funeral cortège for Mirabeau on April 4, 1791

3.3. Use of a gong to induce catalepsy in Jean-Martin Charcot’s neurological clinic at the Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, during the 1870s and 1880s, as rendered in Paul Regnard’s Sorcellerie, magnétisme, morphinisme, délire des grandeurs (1887)

4.1. Interleaved stage manager’s score for productions of Das Rheingold at the Munich Court Theater showing Wotan’s descent into Nibelheim via sulfurous fumes

4.2. Bayreuth’s steaming dragon, as re-created for Angelo Neumann’s 1881 production of the Ring cycle in Berlin’s Victoria-Theater

4.3. A later satirical view of Siegfried’s dragon, likely referring to Angelo Neumann’s production as presented in London in 1882

4.4. “Steam Concert,” in [Jean-Jacques] Grandville, Un autre monde (1844)

4.5. “Steam Orchestra for Handling Wagner’s Scores,” in Kikeriki (1876)

4.6. Karl Klič, “The Bayreuth Music Steam Engine,” in Humoristische Blätter (1876)

4.7. Theo Raven’s production score for Das Rheingold documenting the 1914 Bayreuth staging and how it differed from earlier productions

4.8. The steaming hydroelectric dam in Patrice Chéreau’s centennial production of Das Rheingold, scene 1 (Bayreuth, 1976)

4.9. Mime’s industrial (and proto-steampunk) smithy in Patrice Chéreau’s 1976 Bayreuth production of Siegfried, act 1

4.10. Vera Nemirova’s cosmically misty unit set for the Ring (Opernhaus Frankfurt, 2010–12)

4.11. “Steam Swan,” in Berliner Wespen (1882)

E.1. Robot Myon arrives in front of a red velvet curtain in the Gob Squad production of My Square Lady (Komische Oper Berlin, 2015)

E.2. The “machine” in operation: models of Carl Fillion’s unit set for the Ring in Robert Lepage’s production at the Metropolitan Opera (New York, 2010–12)

E.3. The Rhinemaidens splash about and exhale interactive digital bubbles in scene 1 of Das Rheingold in Robert Lepage’s production at the Metropolitan Opera (New York, 2010)

E.4. Alberich has morphed into a skeletal dinosaur in scene 3 of Das Rheingold in Robert Lepage’s production at the Metropolitan Opera (New York, 2010)

E.5. Robotic giants and gods in mechanical cranes argue over the embodied Nibelung hoard in La Fura dels Baus’s Das Rheingold, scene 4 (Valencia, 2007)

E.6. The gods move towards Valhalla, an acrobatic body sculpture suspended in midair, in La Fura dels Baus’s Das Rheingold, scene 4 (Valencia, 2007)