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What is Gamelan?

Gamelan is the set of instruments which make up an ensemble. This could be as few as two gender (metallophones) or as many as sixty different percussive instruments. The way the instruments are played and tuned, and the cacophony of sound produced-clashing cymbals, booming gongs and clanging keys, all with a complex drum beat holding it together-give gamelan its unique flavor. There are over thirty different types of gamelan ensembles in Bali.

The late I Made Lebah, a famous drummer from Peliatan, plays the drum for the Gamelan Pelegongan. The drum is the dynamic leader in a Balinese ensemble.

The grantang, a bamboo xylophone of the Joged Bumbung ensemble, is played using a pair of sticks with round rubber tips. The left hand plays the melody, while the right hand provides the elaboration.

The History of Gamelan

The first written evidence of gamelan is found in the Sukawana and Bebetin prasasti (metal inscriptions) from the ninth century. The terms parapadaha (drummers) and pamukul (percussionists) from the Sukawana prasasti, and pabunjing (angklung player) and pabangsi (rebab player) from the Bebetin manuscript indicate gamelan activities existed during the Bali Kuno (ancient Bali) period.

According to a noted musician, the late I Nyoman Rembang, gamelan can be divided into three categories. Ensembles in the tua category (old or ancient, prior to the fifteenth century) are seven-tone pelog, which are found mostly in Bali Aga villages of North and East Bali. These do not use drums and the melodies are eerily haunting. Madya ensembles (middle or sixteenth to nineteenth century) developed in the courts with drums and knobbed gongs. The baru (modern or twentieth century to the present) feature drumming and complex interlocking parts.

Most gamelan originally came from the courts of Java. During the Majapahit kingdom (some call it the Golden Age of Hindu-Buddhist civilization), from 1343 to 1511, art flourished under the patronage of the royal families. Bali was a vassal state of Majapahit at this time. When Islam took hold in Java, many members of royalty and their courtiers moved to Bali, bringing with them their belief system and their arts.

The Dutch, who had colonized Java since the 1700s, had only limited control in parts of North and West Bali from 1849 until the turn of the century. In 1906, they invaded South and East Bali, eventually gaining control over the entire island. With both administrative and military power in their hands, the influence of the palaces declined, along with their patronage of the arts. Another phenomenon occurred during this time: the birth of the Gamelan Gong Kebyar. Villagers in North Bali, where this started, melted down the keys on their old gamelan to transform them into new Kebyar orchestras (see p. 25).

Metallophones

A metallophone is an instrument where metal is struck to produce a sound. There are two kinds of metallophones in gamelan: gangsa, which are hit with one mallet, and gender, which are struck with two mallets. The keys are suspended over bamboo resonators cased in beautifully carved jackfruit or teak wood. Some of the gangsa, such as the gender rambat below, have carvings from traditional Balinese stories or fables worked on them. Each note hit must be immediately damped using the left hand, otherwise the sound becomes "muddy, Gangsa players pride themselves on their "clean and crisp" playing, especially when playing the kotekan or interlocking beats.

"Bursting open" and "sudden burst of flame" are only two ways to translate the word kebyar, which most definitely describes the music. Until 1915, game-Ian music was rather monotone in its melodic and rhythmic configurations. Drastic changes in the instruments occurred in North Bali during this time. The incredible energy of Gamelan Gong Kebyar sounded discordant to some Balinese back then. Yet this was a reflection of the social situation; the destabilization of society could be heard in this new music. Up until this time, the music created a mood, an ambience; it filled the space with gentle notes and embraced the listener. Kebyar, on the other hand, pervaded the space in an aggressive way.

Composer and choreographer I Gede Manik of Jagaraga village in Buleleng is thought to be one of the precursors of this style. By the mid-1920s, Gong Kebyar had spread to the south of Bali, and by the 1930s it was well established throughout the island.

The instruments are all percussive with two exceptions: the suling (end-blown bamboo flutes) and the rebab (two-stringed bowed lute). The majority are metallophones (gangsa and gender) with 7-14 metal keys hung over bamboo resonators, spanning 2-3 octaves, and struck with a panggul (mallet).

Musical Principles

A number of musical principles are important within the gamelan. The musicians must play as one ensemble, to be nges (musically tight). There is no room for individuality, so hours and hours of rehearsal can go into preparing for a performance.

All of the metallophones are tuned in pairs to the same pitch but one instrument is tuned slightly higher than the other, resulting in a phenomenon known as "beating" when the two notes are struck simultaneously. This results in a beautiful shimmering sound (ombak or "wave") which permeates the entire ensemble, referred to as ngumbang ngisep ("bee sucking honey"); the higher note is called pengisep and the lower one pengumbang.

Paired tuning extends to gongs and drums, classified as male or female. The lower pitched drum (kendang wadon) is female and the higher pitched one (kendang lanang) is male. The female drum cues musicians and dancers alike. The large hanging gongs are also identified as male and female.

The most striking feature of Balinese music is the use of interlocking configurations (kotekan). This involves two gangsa, two reyong or two drums, each pair playing complementary parts which consist of polos ("simple"), the downbeat, and sangsih ("differing"), the upbeat. For the cymbals in the marching Balaganjur ensemble and Kecak (vocal chanting), a third part is added. Each part on its own sounds incomplete, but once partnered, produces a rich and full texture of sound.

Playing the instruments requires quick reflexes. A key is struck with the mallet held in the right hand, and as soon as the next one is struck the fingers of the left hand damp the previously struck key to stop its sound. Gender damping is done with the sides of the wrists and requires great dexterity and coordination (see p. 51). When playing complicated kotekan, it is imperative that each note be struck and damped clearly so that the sound does not become "muddy."

Gongs and Colotomic Structure

Balinese music is generally performed in an eight-beat phrase called a gong cycle, with the gong marking the end on beat eight. This is the opposite of Western music where the emphasis is on the first beat. Other gongs divide the phrase into smaller units. This is called colotomic structure. The gong cycle is symbolic of the never-ending cycle of life. The Balinese conceptualize time as a loop. This is evident in their cyclical calendar. The belief in reincarnation of the soul also mirrors the idea of cycles.

The most prolific instrument in the gamelan is the gangsa or metallophone. Struck with a hammer with one hand and damped with the other, an extraordinary sound is produced.

This inverted kettle gong (reyong) set is played by two pairs of players, one pair playing the polos part and the other pair playing the sangsih. Aside from the drum, this is the most difficult instrument to master in the gamelan.

In the colotomic structure of a tabuh (musical piece), the pace is kept by the kempli or kajar, a small flat gong on a short stand or held in a musician's lap and struck with a wooden beater. The large gong (gong agung) is struck on beat eight, the kemong on beat four, and the kempli on beats two and six, for example. The kempur is a medium-sized gong and alternates with the large gong, punctuating phrases. The small klenang is struck on the offbeat.

The ugal plays the main melodic line while the other gangsa play kotekan to elaborate the melody. The jublag play the core melody while the bass-like jegogan strike every two or four notes. The reyong and ceng-ceng play off one another and fill in around the gangsa. The suling and rebab elaborate the melody. The drums set the rhythm and tempo. In general, there is no virtuoso playing, although a group may be known for its superb drummers or complex kotekan. An entire group can be called bergaya ("flashy").

No music notation is used; everything is learned entirely by rote. When learning a new piece, the teacher calls out the notes. Occasionally, a composer may write down the core melody but none of the kotekan is noted. Gamelan groups fiercely guard their trademark compositions, yet it is easy for others to figure out the tune simply by listening to a cassette recording and copying it.

Gongs

The large gong (gong agung) is the central instrument of the gamelan ensemble. The offerings are always laid to rest at the foot of this gong. In the musical structure, the gong is the exclamation point at the end of a musical phrase. The smaller gongs (kempli, kemong, kempur) alternately provide punctuation of the phrase, while the kajar is the timekeeper, coordinating with the klenang that marks the upbeat. The role and the sound of the gongs overrides their technical ease of playing.

Tuning within the Ensemble

A Balinese gamelan is not tuned to one common scale, but to itself. A village can request a particular tuning for its gamelan when having a new one made or an old one refurbished. Musicians are familiar with both scales—pelog and slendro—which roughly compare to major and minor scales in Western music. The scales are not absolute, for pelog and slendro refer to intervals between notes as opposed to actual pitches. Pelog can be a four-, five-or seven-note scale of uneven intervals. Slendro can be a four-or five-note scale with roughly equal intervals.

The Balinese use the solfa names (ding, dong, deng, dung and dang) with a gap after deng and dang for the more common pelog scale. An example is E-F-G-B-C. Pelog and Slendro can be further broken down into two saih (scales). Saih pitu (seven-note) is found in the Gambuh, Gambang, Semaradhana and Semar Pagulingan ensembles. The more common saih lima (five-note) is used in Gong Gede, Gong Kebyar, Gamelan Pelegongan and Gamelan Bebarongan. Gamelan Jegog of West Bali is the only ensemble with a four-note pelog scale.

A typical slendro scale could be construed as A-C-D-E-G. This approximates the Western penta-tonic scale and is used in Gender Wayang, Joged Bumbung, Gamelan Wayang Wong and Gamelan Parwa. The four-note slendro scale is used by Gamelan Angklung, although a five-tone Gamelan Angklung in North Bali is common.

Battle of the Bands

During the 1950s, a new phenomena called mebarung occurred where two different gamelan groups would perform against one another on stage. Oftentimes they did the same pieces so that the audience could judge which was the better or more innovative group. Today, mebarung refers more to a friendly evening of music from two well-matched groups.

Kebyar as a genre of both music and dance continued to develop throughout the twentieth century. In 1968, the first Gong Kebyar competition, called Mredangga Utsava, took place in Denpasar. The public began to favor new Kebyar compositions over the older, classical styles. The festival was repeated in 1969 and 1978, then annually from 1982 when it became a part of the Bali Arts Festival (Pesta Kesenian Bali) held at the Werdhi Budaya Art Centre. Each regency selects a group to represent that area and provides financial assistance. New compositions and dances are created and intense rehearsals occur for six months prior to the festival. Fierce competition takes place between the rival eight regencies and the municipality of Denpasar. The top four contenders present a program pitted against one of the other groups at the amphitheater in Denpasar. Great attention is paid to detail, from the costuming to the entrance of the musicians, to how they move their bodies as an ensemble. These are some of the most anticipated evenings of the Arts Festival. Loyal fans sit in sections behind their group and often hoot and holler, and even throw empty plastic water bottles at the rival ensemble to disturb their concentration. This is not the best forum to hear the music, but the excitement matches the energy of the music. To be one of the winners is a great honor and cassette tapes are made every year of the most acclaimed groups.

In 1985, a Festival Gong Wanita or Women's Gamelan Festival was started. This was replaced in 2001 with the first ever adult mixed group. Children's Kebyar groups have competed in the Festival since 1992 and are the pride and joy of each region.

A New SoundScape

One of the unique elements of Kebyar is the sound byar, when a number of notes are struck at the same time, creating a soundscape spanning octaves. The whole gamut of emotions is heard and felt. It is not music for meditation, but it certainly heightens the senses (and wakes one up!).

The gender (metallophones) of the shadow puppet play are more prominent in the Gong Kebyar because the keys of the gender are thinner than those of the gangsa, producing a more high-pitched sound. The abrupt starts and stops and complex rhythmic configurations allow a much wider range of expression. The older five-keyed gangsa jongkok now has nine or ten keys, affording a larger musical range. Large ceng-ceng (cymbals) are replaced by smaller ones (ricik), and drum patterns are greatly altered by replacing slower stick drumming with much quicker and more exciting hand playing.

Carving gamelan stands in a pavilion. The holes are for the bamboo resonators. The artists carve directly onto the finished jackfruit wood stands.

Ida Bagus Sugatha of Griya Gunung Sari, Peliatan, playing the melodious two-stringed rebab or lute, the only stringed instrument in the gamelan.

The tuning for Gong Kebyar is saih lima (five notes) in the pelog scale. Gong Kebyar can be grouped into three categories of size: utama is a full orchestra, madya is semi-complete; and nista has only half the instruments. A village can purchase a nista set and add to it as their coffers allow.

Kebyar music can be divided into styles from North and South Bali. North Balinese ensembles tend to play faster, with more complex ornamentation and sharper differentiation in rhythm. This style is less popular and now the style of South Bali is dominant.

In the past thirty years there has been great innovation in the musical world of Bali. With the advent of television, tourism and globalization, many new ideas and musical styles have come to the Balinese. The performing arts schools (SMKI and ISI) encourage their students to create new pieces (kreasi baru). Collaborations between Balinese and other Indonesians as well as foreigners are on the rise, and nearly every month some kind of fusion music or dance is performed on the island.

The Full Ensemble

The following instruments comprise Gamelan Gong Kebyar, the most common gamelan ensemble in Bali.

two gong agung: large hanging gongs (80 cm in diameter)

one kempur: small hanging gong (55 cm in diameter)

one kempli: small hanging gong (35 cm in diameter)

one kajar: small horizontal gong (35 cm in diameter)

two jegogan: five keys, padded mallet

two jublag or calung: five keys, one octave higher than jegogan, padded mallet

two penyacah: seven keys, one octave higher than jublag, padded mallet

one or two ugal: ten keys, regular mallet, fifth note same as penyacah's highest note

four pemade: ten keys, one octave higher than ugal, regular mallet

four kantil: ten keys, one octave higher than pemade, regular mallet

one reyong: twelve kettle gongs played by four musicians, each using two wooden sticks wrapped with cord on the ends

one trompong: ten kettle gongs, played by a soloist

two kendang: double-headed drums made out of nangka (jackfruit) wood hollowed out in an hourglass shape; heads are cow skin

one ceng-ceng: cymbals fastened onto a wooden base facing upwards and played with a hand-held pair facing down

ceng-ceng kopyak: pairs of hand-held crash cymbals

Tuning in the Gong Foundry

The actual tuning of the instruments-is done at gamelan foundries located in a few villages, for example, Banjar Babakan in Blahbatuh (Gianyar); many in Tihingin (Klungkung); Denpasar (Banjar Abiankapas), and in Sawan (Buleleng). Here the smaller knobbed gongs and keys are forged. Large gongs are all made in Java. The metal, which is a bronze alloy (kerawang) of approximately ten parts tin to three parts copper, is melted in a crucible at extremely high heat and then poured into molds. Once the metal has solidified a bit, it is plunged into water and then reheated and shaped in a small fire of coconut shell chips which burn quickly at a very high temperature. After the key has obtained its desired shape, it is sent to the tuners and filers.

The tuner taps a key on the concrete floor to hear its pitch and then trims. The pitch is lowered by shaving off metal from the bottom. This makes the key longer in proportion to its thickness, causing it to vibrate more slowly when struck. To raise the pitch, the key is filed along one of the ends, shortening it to vibrate more quickly. Resonators used to be made exclusively out of bamboo, but today many customers prefer longer lasting PVC piping. The pitch can be altered by changing the amount of space in the hollow of the bamboo or PVC tube. This is achieved by putting plugs into the tube at certain intervals.

Kettle gongs are forged in a similar fashion. First pounded into a flat circle, the sides and the knob are then beaten into shape. Tuner-filers are experts who can hear nuances in pitch even with all the clanging and banging around them. Two holes are drilled in each key which is then suspended in ascending order of pitch over the resonators.

The Cosmic Scale

The lontar script Prakempa, dating to the late eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries, refers to the mystical significance of the musical scale as having its roots in the panca maha bhuta ("five great elementals"): pertiwi, bayu, apah, teja and akasa (earth, wind, water, fire and ether). Each of these elements corresponds to one of the cardinal directions (plus center) and is associated with a deity, number, letter, color and sound. The creator of sound, Bhagawan Wiswakarma, took sounds from all the directions and divided them into two five-note scales, pelog and slendro. Pelog is related to the Five Holy Waters and the God of Love, Semara; slendro is related to the Five Fires and the Goddess of Love, Ratih.

The large gong symbolizes heaven while the kempur (medium-sized gong) is the receptacle of all that is holy. The kajar (small timekeeping gong) is Guru, the Supreme Teacher who commands tempo. This is manifested in the microcosm within the musical structure. In the lelambatan (slow instrumental) piece "Tabuh Pat" (Song in Fours), there are four kempur and kajar strokes within one gong phrase. Each instrument corresponds to a part of the human body, and the path of sound in the body also is described in this treatise.

A gamelan without ceng-ceng cymbals is said to be like a meal without salt. The atonal interlocking rhythms spice up the songs.