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As with vulnerabilities, we address four basic types of countermeasures: physical, operational, personnel, and technical. It is important to note that you do not need to mitigate a vulnerability with a countermeasure of the same type. Also, you may choose to mitigate a vulnerability with countermeasures from multiple categories.

For example, the case of Edward Snowden demonstrates personnel vulnerabilities. Several types of countermeasures could have helped in this case. Better personnel countermeasures could have identified and addressed the problem. However, technical countermeasures, such as multifactor authentication and better network security controls, as well as operational controls, such as Snowden's co-workers having better awareness about not giving out their passwords to others, would have combined to stop Snowden's theft.

You should likewise look for diverse sets of countermeasures to mitigate vulnerabilities. Know that no single type of countermeasure is perfect. However, when combined effectively, they should ideally stop UIL from actually being realized. The following sections further examine physical, operational, personnel, and technical countermeasures.