Читать книгу Financial Cold War - James A. Fok - Страница 29
Notes
Оглавление1 1. (Barton, 2021) and IMF data, which can be accessed at: https://data.imf.org.
2 2. (WTO, 2019).
3 3. World Bank data. Figure is for 2019 and can be accessed at: https://data.worldbank.org.
4 4. (Paulson Jr., 2020).
5 5. (Sharma, 2019). Emphasis added.
6 6. (Tooze, 2014, p. 33).
7 7. (Ahamed, 2009, p. 135).
8 8. (Steil, 2013, p. 34).
9 9. (Steil, 2013, p. 55).
10 10. (Steil, 2013, p. 28).
11 11. (Steil, 2013, pp. 55–56). Quote attributed to Henry Morgenthau III.
12 12. (Steil, 2018, p. 89).
13 13. (Steil, 2013, p. 72).
14 14. (Ahamed, 2009, p. 131).
15 15. In 1933, Cornell professor of farm management George Warren, along with two colleagues, published a title Wholesale Prices for 213 Years: 1720–1923, in which they documented a strong correlation between trends in commodity prices and the global supply and demand for gold. One of their conclusions was that, if commodity prices fell because of a gold shortage, raising the price of gold (in other words, devaluing the currency against gold) would be a means of reversing falling prices. This argument was to become influential on the Roosevelt Administration as it battled deflation brought on by the Great Depression in the 1930s.
16 16. (Ahamed, 2009, pp. 159–161).
17 17. (Ahamed, 2009, p. 100).
18 18. (Ahamed, 2009, pp. 218–219).
19 19. (Steil, 2013, p. 74).
20 20. (Ahamed, 2009, pp. 241–268).
21 21. (Carter, 2020, p. 130)
22 22. Fractional reserve banking is a system in which only a fraction of bank deposits is backed by actual cash on hand and available for withdrawal. This system frees up more capital for lending, allowing the economy to expand more quickly.
23 23. (Wheelock, 1995).
24 24. (Steil, 2013, p. 157).
25 25. (Ahamed, 2009, p. 491).
26 26. (Steil, 2013, p. 207).
27 27. Under both the Atlantic Charter and Article VII of Lend-Lease, the US had sought to put an end to Britain's Imperial Preference system that provided preferential trade terms within the British Commonwealth.
28 28. (Steil, 2013, p. 129).
29 29. (Steil, 2013, p. 219).
30 30. (Steil, 2013, pp. 472–487).
31 31. Notwithstanding the prefix ‘Euro-’, the term ‘Eurodollar’ refers to all US dollar deposits held at banks outside the US and are therefore not under the jurisdiction of the Federal Reserve. Thus, a US dollar-denominated deposit at a bank in Hong Kong or Tokyo would be likewise deemed a Eurodollar deposit.
32 32. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 13).
33 33. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 13).
34 34. (Schenk, 1998, p. 222).
35 35. The spot market is where financial instruments are traded for immediate delivery.
36 36. Threadneedle Street in the City of London is the location of the Bank of England and is commonly used to refer to the UK's central bank.
37 37. (Schenk, 1998, pp. 224-227).
38 38. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 13).
39 39. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 14).
40 40. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 17).
41 41. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 17). Quote attributed to John Craven.
42 42. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 18). Quote from a speech by Lord Cromer, Governor of the Bank of England, at the Lord Mayor's Banquet in October 1962.
43 43. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 18).
44 44. Although there are claims that other issuers may have gone before Autostrade, as the first publicly issued Eurocurrency offering with an active secondary market, Autostrade is generally recognised as the first Eurobond issue.
45 45. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 23).
46 46. ‘Coupon clipping’ refers back to a time when bonds came printed with coupons on them. To receive the interest payments, the bondholder would clip off each coupon as its payment came due and redeem it for cash.
47 47. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 23–24). ‘Throgmorton Street’ refers to the London Stock Exchange, which was located there from 1972 until 2004.
48 48. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 25).
49 49. (Norman, 2007, p. 18).
50 50. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 25).
51 51. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 27–30).
52 52. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 35–36).
53 53. (O'Malley, 2015, p. 36).
54 54. (Norman, 2007, p. 22).
55 55. A ‘repo’ is a repurchase agreement. This is a form of short-term collateralised borrowing. The borrower sells securities (usually government or other highly rated bonds) to the lender in return for short-term funds and, by agreement between the two parties, buys them back at a future date, usually at a higher price to reflect interest costs.
56 56. (Phillips, 2019).
57 57. SWIFT data, which can be accessed at: https://www.swift.com/swift-resource/249851/download.
58 58. Based on BIS and SIFMA figures, which can respectively be accessed at: https://stats.bis.org/statx/toc/SEC.html and https://www.sifma.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/US-Fact-Book-2020-SIFMA.pdf.
59 59. The Guam Doctrine is also known as the Nixon Doctrine. By the time that Nixon came to office in 1969, the US was financially and militarily overstretched by the Cold War and the Vietnam War. Recognising that the US was realistically unable to maintain all the commitments it had previously made, President Nixon first articulated a retrenchment in US foreign commitments at a press conference in Guam on 25 July 1969, whereby he stated that henceforth the US ‘would assist in the defence and developments of allies and friends’ but would not ‘undertake all the defence of the free nations of the world’. Implicitly, this was an abandonment of the Southeast Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO).
60 60. (Klein & Pettis, 2020, pp. 192–193).
61 61. These were known as ‘Roosa bonds’, named after Treasury official Robert Roosa.
62 62. (Steil, 2013, p. 495).
63 63. (Reid-Henry, 2019, p. 58).
64 64. Emphasis added.
65 65. (Thorp, 2017, p. 202).
66 66. For the story of the rise and fall of LTCM, see (Lowenstein, 2011).
67 67. These currencies were: British pounds, Canadian dollars, Deutschmarks, Japanese yen, Mexican pesos and Swiss francs.
68 68. (Yergin, 1991, pp. 597–607).
69 69. (Mouawad, 2008).
70 70. BIS data as of 31 December 2020, which can be accessed at: https://stats.bis.org.
71 71. World Federation of Exchanges data as of 31 December 2020, which can be accessed at: https://statistics.world-exchanges.org.
72 72. BIS data as of 31 December 2020, which can be accessed at: https://stats.bis.org.
73 73. This is the risk of default by the opposite party to a trade. Clearing houses act as a central counterparty to all traders within a market and collect margin funds from all participants in order to insure against the default of any one party to a trade.
74 74. US Treasury Department data, which can be accessed at: www.publicdebt.treas.gov.
75 75. Based on US Treasury Department data for Treasury securities held by the public, which can be accessed at: https://ticdata.treasury.gov/Publish/mfh.txt. This figure may misstate the true proportion of US Treasury securities held by foreigners, since US securities held in overseas custody accounts may not be attributed to the actual owners.
76 76. (Garbade, 2012, p. 1).
77 77. (Garbade, 2012, p. 44).
78 78. (Davidson, 2010, p. 664).
79 79. US Treasury Department data, which can be accessed at: https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/datasets/.
80 80. (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).
81 81. (Yergin, 1991, p. 616).
82 82. (Yergin, 1991, p. 409).
83 83. Based on US Treasury Department data, which can be accessed at: https://ticdata.treasury.gov/Publish/mfhhis01.txt and https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/datasets/historical-debt-outstanding/historical-debt-outstanding.
84 84. Pursuant to the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Pub.L. 111-203), effective since 21 July 2010.
85 85. Bloomberg data.
86 86. (Richter, 1989).
87 87. (Cole, 1989).
