Читать книгу Best Summit Hikes in Colorado - James Dziezynski - Страница 11
ОглавлениеThe Colorado Rocky Mountains
Overview
Wind, water, fire, ice, and earth are the artists responsible for shaping Colorado’s mountains. These elemental influences have made the landscape regions distinct both in character and contour. While all major mountains in Colorado are considered part of the broad North American Rocky Mountain Range (which runs from New Mexico to British Columbia), subranges within the chain have undergone varying degrees of elemental influence. As a result, these geological deviations give each mountain region a unique flavor.
For example, the glacially carved Sawatch Range is known for its gentle slopes and great elevations, greeting hikers like a kindly old grandfather. Crumbling marine shale gives mountains in the Maroon Bells–Snowmass Wilderness the essence of a great manor house in disrepair; it’s a place where seemingly solid rocks embedded in the earth can pop out like rotten teeth. Pods of pristine peaks can be found in the sporadic outcrops and dramatic profiles of the Sangre De Cristo Range. Incredible sculptures of imposing granite define the remote Grenadier Range, daring you to enter their impressive kingdom.
There are many more subranges in Colorado, not to mention sub-subranges, such as the Spanish Peaks in the Sangre De Cristo Range of the Rocky Mountains. Geology is the primary factor in defining ranges, though categorization can be influenced by other whims. One example is the group of high Sawatch Mountains known as the Collegiate Peaks. These well-known mountains bear the names of prestigious eastern US universities, a far cry from the mellifluous names that had been bestowed upon them by native people. They differ little from surrounding Sawatch mountains, though it is interesting to note that they were initially grouped (before being named) according to mining boundaries.
However they are grouped on the map, as you spend more time in the mountains, you will begin to unveil the “personalities” of individual peaks. Until one actually sets foot on the slopes, the objective data and raw facts serve merely to foster our curiosity. Experiencing the mountain with your own senses reveals the spirit of the peak. Each journey to the high country transforms that two-dimensional mark on the map into a vivid memory. And whether the mention of a mountain brings to mind warm memories or recollections of chilling close calls, every step of the way will have been an adventure. Such are the adventures hikers yearn to live.
Geology and Biology: A Very Brief History
The definitive characteristic of the Rocky Mountains can be found right under your boots. Eons of change have put the “rock” into the Rocky Mountains. How these mountains were built is an intriguing tale. Fossils abound in compressed chronicles of stone, each representative of a past ecosystem. Dynamic transformations over the years have yielded a wealth of information and, conversely, have contributed to new scientific mysteries.
To summarize all the geological mayhem, Colorado’s rock has been shaped by three primary forces: plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions, and glacial polishing. Starting at the bottom of the pile are the Precambrian foundations of igneous and metamorphic rock, formed some 600 million years ago when most of planet Earth was a volatile, volcanic work in progress. Very little is known about this period. To put it in perspective, scientists believe the most advanced form of life at the time was a multicelled piece of slimy bacteria. (Similar life-forms can be found today in the back of my refrigerator.)
Then, 300 million years ago, the land began to rise up as continental plates collided. This created enormous sand dunes and other soft formations that served as a holding place for the mountains to come. Much of the trademark flagstone adorning the buildings at the University of Colorado in Boulder was formed in this era. Around 250 million years ago, the gnawing power of erosion had whittled down this sandstone, making space for great lakes of silty water and nearly uninhabitable swamps. Rising temperatures made life demanding for primitive creatures. If that wasn’t bad enough, an event known as the Great Extermination, in which life was eradicated on a global scale, made survival for our prehistoric friends an incredible act of endurance. This period of unexplained catastrophe ushered out the old, slimy age and introduced a new explosion of diverse life across the globe.
Between 250 and 100 million years ago, Colorado’s climate transformed flat, muddy swamps into great tropical forests. Incredibly dense and lush, these forests were ideal homesteads for a variety of dinosaurs. The really big boys called Colorado home, including the biologically enigmatic sauropods such as diplodocus and brontosaurus. These huge creatures had shockingly tiny brains, an anomaly that was offset by the fact that all they had to do was eat and grow bigger. Giant ferns grew in the verdant swamps, unchecked by dry weather or pollution. It was a great time for all. But, like all good things, it had to end.
Persistent erosion and changing temperatures began to have a profound effect on the landscape between 100 and 65 million years ago. Swampy basins lost their thickets of vegetation, resulting in marshy lakes that continued to expand onto flat tracts of land. All the hard work that plate tectonics had done to build up the land was nearly for naught. By the end of this era, most of Colorado was hundreds of feet underwater. This inland salty sea was host to incredible creatures, from gargantuan sea life to enormous flying reptiles. Seashells of ammonites and other critters from this period can be found today in several regions, notably the Elk and Gore Ranges.
From about 60 to 38 million years ago, the mountains began to rebound. An uplift of plates elevated mountains to modest heights: 3,000–4,000 feet higher than the seas below. Water rose with the land, pooling in isolated lakes or disappearing completely. Fearsome predators such as the jaw-some Tyrannosaurus rex roamed the land. As a whole, the animals and plants of this era show a gradual downsizing trend. The great giants found food sources vanishing or became snacks for smaller, more aggressive species. The times, they were a-changin’, setting the stage for the huge alterations in the land. Scientists speculate that the famous “doom asteroid” struck Earth in this time period. (The asteroid theory is based on high levels of iridium found in rock/plant samples, suspected to be a direct result of a huge meteor slamming into Earth in the Yucatan Peninsula near the modern-day city of Cancun in Mexico.) This collision affected life-forms of all sizes and triggered volcanic flows throughout the region. The impact was felt on a global level, yet it was only the first act in a show that would take place over the next few million years. The greatest changes were just around the corner… .
Colorado’s defining era was about to begin. Roughly 37 million years ago, massive continental plates were thrust into motion. This movement slid the North American Plate westward over the steadfast Pacific Plate, unleashing torrents of volcanic lava and ash. Incredible pressure pushed the land higher and higher, transforming those unassuming 3,000-foot hills into crowns atop enormous peaks. For millions of years, the land was altered as heavy rains washed away volcanic ash. Geologists are a bit puzzled that the mountains formed in the region that is present-day Colorado. Normally, tectonic-based ranges rise a mere 20–600 miles from the oceanic coast. These mountains rose up thousands of miles inland, possibly indicating a distinctive geologic event, which has never been repeated.
Dinosaurs too big (or perhaps too dull in the skull) for the new land to support disappeared. Smaller, smarter, and faster was the order of the day. The last titans gave way to more adaptable creatures. Mammoths, camels, bison, lions, and other warm-blooded creatures flourished, replacing the reptiles who had ruled this domain for millions of years. This golden era introduced the reign of the giant mammals, a tenure that was to be very short lived. Of all the creatures in this ancient mammalian menagerie, only a select few would survive into the modern day.
About 1 million years ago, things began to calm down, and the Colorado we know today began to take shape. Rock that had lain for millions of years under seas was now sky high. The Colorado Plateau rose up from huge faults and rifts. Plate motions made mountains out of molehills; the Sangre De Cristo and Wet Mountains ranges in the east are direct results of this powerful subduction. Volcanic eruptions added to the artistry. One example: The striking, crumbling precipice of Lizard Head Peak just outside of Telluride is the durable throat of a long extinct volcano.
Talus flows like liquid down to Lake Agnes at the foot of Mount Richthofen.
A mere 16,000 years ago, an ice age passed over the land. This was the last hurrah for the monster mammals, including the tusky mammoth. Only the hearty bison survived the advancing and receding glaciers, just to be hunted to near-extinction by white men in the 1800s. Glacial rivers smoothed and polished the land, carving deep cirques in the sides of mountains. In modern times, these glaciers are making their last stand as Colorado’s mountains prepare for the next great geological event.
Poets would have us believe that mountains are static and permanent features, everlasting monuments that contrast with mankind’s brief stint on Earth. The less romantic truth is that mountains are constantly changing. Discrete modifications in height occur every few years, though it takes precision instruments to sense most changes. Events such as the explosive eruption of Washington’s Mount St. Helens in 1980 are business as usual for mountain ranges but have a long-lasting impact on humans when they occur in our lifetime. Mountains are no less subject than we are to the forces of nature, though they offer resilience that projects permanence.
Human History in the Colorado Rockies
After the most recent ice age (roughly 11,000 years ago), the first human inhabitants took up residency in the Rockies. These primitive people endured harsh winters in pursuit of the great mammals that roamed in the valleys. Mammoths were coveted for the amount of meat they would yield and for their sturdy bones and ivory tusks, which could be shaped into tools. People migrated with the animals, leaving few permanent settlements in their wake.
Laramide Orogeny
The Rocky Mountains owe their airy existence to a geological event known as the Laramide Orogeny. The word orogeny comes from the Greek language and means “mountain building.” In context, orogenies specifically describe mountains that have risen as a result of plate tectonics. To simplify what is an incredibly complex process, think of Earth’s continents as floating plates akin to shards of broken ice on a pond. The “pond” that our continents float upon is called the lithosphere. When these shards collide, whole continents are shaped by the plates driving into one another until one finally yields and slides beneath the dominant shard—a process known as subduction. As the “defeated” plate drifts under the “victorious” plate, the land of the upper plate is pushed higher and higher, and the raw forms of mountains appear. After centuries of refinement at the behest of the elements, the mountains begin to take on the dramatic shapes we identify with our greatest peaks. The collision that formed Colorado’s mountains is known as the Laramide Orogeny.
The Laramide Orogeny (named for the Laramie Mountains in eastern Wyoming) began roughly 80 million years ago, though the start of such a slow-acting phenomenon is difficult to pinpoint. The process continued for nearly 40 million years. As the North American continental plate slid westward, it eventually converged with the oceanic Pacific Plate, also know as the Farallon Plate. The North American Plate was the dominant of the two and began to glide over the Pacific Plate, pushing it down.
Slowly, the Pacific Plate slid between the North American Plate and Earth’s mantle—the last solid layer before the planet’s molten core. Because of the relatively snug fit of these plates and the shallow angle of subduction, there was little volcanic activity. As the plates converged in fits and starts, the land from Alaska to Mexico grew increasingly higher.
Prototypes of the Rocky Mountains formed at this time. As the plates settled, cracks in the layers (called geologic faults) released high-pressure volcanic magma. These delayed eruptions occurred several million years after the start of the Laramide Orogeny. Major flows in the Sawatch and San Juan Ranges contributed to the formation of mountains. Eventually, the plates locked into place and the magma was sealed below the Earth, surfacing from time to time to heat a hot spring or to vent through fumaroles. The land stabilized over the centuries, making the Rocky Mountains a fixture on the continent, where they will continue to stand tall for generations to come.
Many of the tribes that formed over the years are familiar names: Apache, Arapahoe, Cheyenne, Crow, Shoshoni, Sioux, and Ute, to list a few. These people flourished as they mastered yearly patterns of migration. Autumn and winter were spent on the warmer, lower plains, while spring and summer were ideal times to hunt and forage in the mountains.
Undoubtedly lost in these annals of time are the first true ascents of the major mountains in Colorado. While most of these feats have gone undocumented, it is naive to assume that the native people were any more exempt from the lure of the mountains than we are today. Alas, history is written from the perspective of the conqueror and not the conquered, and the mystery of who first set foot atop these peaks will remain unknown.
Among the first meddling Europeans to explore the Rockies was Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, the fabled ambassador of Spain who was, unfortunately, very good at his job. His journeys to the southern Rocky Mountains (mostly in New Mexico) in 1540 introduced native people to the ways of the white man. While there were a few beneficial results for the indigenous peoples from these encounters, such as the introduction of the horse and metalworking, the downside was a near eradication of the natives’ culture, habitat, and spirituality.
The Spanish influence on the southern Rockies is evident today, with many peaks in the San Juan Mountains (itself an obviously Spanish moniker) named after Spanish explorers and missionaries. A select few mountains have reverted back to their native names in modern times.
A slow stream of Western European men began to infiltrate the Colorado region, mostly in search of fur and timber, and an uneasy alliance between the natives and newcomers was reached. In the late 1700s, as the nation of America came into being, people grew more curious in what lay in the uncharted lands to the west. The Scottish Canadian explorer Sir Alexander Mackenzie crossed the Rockies in 1793, on his way to the first transcontinental navigation of North America. He would later go on to discover the Arctic Ocean. The turbulent river that runs from Great Slave Lake north to the Arctic is named in his honor. Following in his footsteps, bold miners and fur traders set up the first European settlements in Colorado.
Shortly after Mackenzie’s exploration, the fabled Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) set about making detailed descriptions of the land along the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, which entailed crossing the Rocky Mountains. They encountered many of the native peoples on their journey, many of whom were peaceful, or at worst, ambivalent to the band of American explorers. Lewis and Clark opened the door for many famous explorers, whose names are on our maps today: Kit Carson, Jim Bridger, Zebulon Pike, John Fremont, Jedediah Smith, and John Colter. These mountain men became larger than life for their exploits in the Wild West.
Lewis and Clark opened the door for many explorers: Kit Carson, Jim Bridger, Zebulon Pike, John Fremont, Jedediah Smith, and John Colter. These mountain men became larger than life for their exploits in the Wild West.
Miners doggedly combed the land for precious minerals in the Rocky Mountains region and finally hit gold in Colorado in 1859. Gold deposits in the mineral-rich South Platte River region were the catalyst that led to an explosion in mining. “Pikes Peak or Bust” was the order of the day, as dreamy miners dug into the rocky earth in search of great wealth. William Green Russell, a native Georgian, was the first to establish a successful gold mine, just outside of the present-day city of Englewood. By the 1860s, Central City and Idaho Springs were major hubs of mining commerce, with cities on the plains such as Boulder, Golden, and Denver playing supporting roles.
Now that the land had tangible value, greed became a motivating factor in the extermination and relocation of the native people. Overpowered by the guns of the white man, the native tribes were hastily removed from the landscape as more and more settlers claimed legal ownership of the earth. Friction culminated in the disgraceful slaughter of peaceful Cheyenne and Arapahoe natives in Kiowa County, a horrible event later known as the Sand Creek Massacre. On November 29, 1864, a cowardly group of Colorado militiamen mercilessly slaughtered an encampment of mostly elderly men, women, and children, killing more than 200. This point marked the beginning of the end for the people who had called Colorado home for centuries.
As the gold mines in the high country began to sputter out, mining got a shot in the arm with the great silver discoveries outside of Leadville in 1879. More and more settlers stayed in Colorado after the lodes ran dry, moving to major cities and leaving ghost towns in their wake. The population grew as Colorado’s agreeable climate, natural resources, and intrinsic beauty became widely known. Out-of-work miners turned to agriculture in the high country, and hundreds of ranches sprang up.
Colorado achieved statehood on August 1, 1876, becoming the 38th state of the United States. Since then, it has grown to become a major recreational and tourist destination. Mining experienced a modern boom during both World Wars. Molybdenum, an element crucial in strengthening the armor plating on tanks and warships, became a major resource. The Climax Molybdenum Mine, on Fremont Pass outside of Leadville, continues to carry out operations to this day.
In modern times, skiing and other outdoors recreation have given new life to the high country. With our newfangled horseless carriages and high-tech Gore-Tex jackets, the backcountry has never been more accessible. The value of Colorado’s wilderness in an era of development and industry is priceless; we must ensure future generations will enjoy the mountains as we do today by honoring and respecting the land.
Wildlife
High-elevation critters are a hearty bunch. Despite the harsh conditions experienced at altitude, animals of many sizes flourish, all the way up to 14,000 feet. Survival depends on clever adaptations to the environment. These creatures employ a great bag of tricks to endure year after year. Hibernation, torpor, seasonal fur camouflage, ingenious den designs, and unique physiological adaptations are among the strategies that are proven winners in the alpine kingdom.
Hikers and backpackers entering the backcountry need to respect local wildlife. Once on their turf, we need to play by their rules. They experience the world through a different set of sense organs, oftentimes superior to our own eyes, ears, and noses. And since neither man nor animal is looking for trouble, reducing the chances of a bad encounter is essential for both.
By now you should know to never feed the wildlife, no matter how cute or hungry they look. Feeding animals can make them reliant on hikers as a food source. At high-traffic areas such as Rocky Mountain National Park, the pudgy jaybirds and ground squirrels begging at popular trailheads prove that many people disregard this rule. Wildlife must remain wild. An animal that retains the skills that have kept its kind alive for hundreds of years must not lose that proficiency by developing a craving for Cheetos.
A sunny winter day warms up a foxy friend.
Do not approach wild animals and never do anything that would frighten them. Animal behavior is unpredictable, and it is always best to give even the “friendly” animals their space. Slow-moving and less aggressive animals should not be stressed out by visitors trying to handle them. Take photographs from a safe distance.
To put it simply, be respectful, and acquiesce to them if you must. Life is hard enough in the high country; the last thing the animals that live there need is meddling humans to goof things up.
Mammal Roll Call
Furry friends are plentiful in the mountains. Largest of all are the impressive moose that live in pockets throughout marshy areas of the Rocky Mountains, notably in the Gore Range peaks outside of Vail. Moose are not native to Colorado. They were introduced in 1978 as a small group and have flourished, comprising about 600 animals today. With male bull moose averaging 1,100 pounds, they are not to be trifled with. Even the daintiest female moose can weigh 800 pounds when full grown. Moose are the largest members of the deer family (Cervidae), and their name comes from an Algonquin word meaning “twig eater.” These muscular mammals are relatively rare in Colorado, so consider yourself lucky if you spot one. (Note that bison, which can weigh up to 2,000 pounds, are not considered wild animals in Colorado. The only native populations that exist are on ranches, where they are raised for meat or hides.)
More commonly found are the moose’s cousins, the elk. Elk originally roamed the plains east of the Rockies, but they have since adapted to conditions in lower high-altitude regions. Don’t be surprised if you happen to see them higher on the mountain, as they will wander to the very tops of peaks when summer weather is agreeable. Elk are by nature herd animals, though young bucks are known to be a bit more adventurous and may leave the comfort of the group for short periods of time. Like moose, they are generally peaceful but can get aggressive during the rut (mating season). The famous bugle of elk during the mating season is a haunting call, a distinct tone that must be heard to be appreciated.
Deer round up the major members of the ungulate order (ungulates are the hoofed mammals). Mule deer make up the largest subfamily in the mountains. Although their role in life is primarily serving as prey for larger carnivores, mule deer are scrappy and rugged. While still herd animals, they often band in much smaller groups than elk, sometimes in families of only four to six members. I’ve encountered mule deer above 14,000 feet and even on the summits of some fairly rugged peaks (such as Mount Zirkel). Keep your eyes open, and you may spot them, too.
Black bears are perhaps the most feared of the mountain mammals and among the most misunderstood. Most are shy and will avoid confrontations with humans. Because they are omnivores, black bears are perfectly content to munch on berries and vegetation, hunting for meat only when they have to. Remember, however, that they are still equipped with the finest in carnivore technology and are excellent swimmers and climbers. Unless you are Carl Lewis, you cannot outrun a black bear. Smaller black bears are often mistaken for large dogs, while larger black bears can easily be mistaken for bison. Some males can grow to weigh more than 800 pounds and reach 6 feet tall, from ground to shoulder. With a healthy, glossy coat and a face that shows a relaxed dominance, it is easy to get captivated in the presence of such an incredible beast. Note that bear’s fur changes with the seasons, fluctuating from near black to light brown. For information on bear encounters, read the section “What to Do if You Encounter a Black Bear,”.
Grizzly bears (also known as brown bears) are considered to be extinct in this area, but just to be safe, the Colorado Department of Natural Resources considers the grizz an endangered species. The last known grizzly was killed by hunters in the San Juan Mountains in 1979. There have been no confirmed sightings since, though reports come in every year of their existence. Wyoming does have confirmed grizzly populations however, and it is not far-fetched to think some of this group may wander into Colorado. Rumors persist of a small population in the Sawatch Range around Mount Elbert. While it may be easy for an inexperienced wildlife observer to confuse a grizzly and a black bear, they are quite different in both appearance and demeanor. Grizzly bears are brownish-yellow and are more muscular than black bears. Their enormous heads and muscular humps over the shoulders make them formidable and majestic animals. Grizzlies are more aggressive than black bears and are much more unpredictable. The good news in Colorado is that if there are any grizzlies in the state, they do well to stay out of sight.
Mountain lions (also known as cougars, pumas, or panthers) are the elusive kings of the mountain and the least predictable. Because they live as individuals, as opposed to in packs, their behavior can differ from cat to cat. Large felines are nature’s perfect predators: fast, stealthy, smart, and equipped to win any battle. You may have never seen a mountain lion, but I guarantee they’ve seen you! Most lions have no need to attack humans and seem smart enough to avoid the trouble (not to mention expending the effort to attack a 200-pound human when that energy can be better used to take down a 400-pound elk). However, mountain lions have an instinct to pursue fast-moving creatures and several attacks on humans have occurred when people were running or biking. If presented with the opportunity of an easy kill, a hungry lion will stalk smaller people or children. Such tactics are generally thought to be acts of desperation by emaciated or older lions and are very rare, with the average being one attack per year over the past 120 years. The fact that lions have ample opportunity to attack oblivious hikers and normally choose not to indicates that we are not their favorite targets. With their high intelligence and reliance on stealth, it may benefit both the mountain lion and the hiker that they stay in the shadows. For more information, read the section “What to Do if You Encounter a Mountain Lion,”.
Large felines are nature’s perfect predators: fast, stealthy, smart, and equipped to win any battle. You may have never seen a mountain lion, but I guarantee that they’ve seen you! Nonetheless, most lions have no need to attack humans.
The lesser carnivores you may see include bobcats, badgers, coyotes, weasels, martens, red foxes, and if you’re extra lucky, the recently reintroduced lynx. There may be traces of gray wolves in northern Colorado. Lynx were believed to be extinct in Colorado by 1973, but a successful reintroduction of 200 cats was initiated in 1999 in the San Juan Mountains. As of 2012, this population seems to be doing well. Wolverines were extirpated in Colorado by the early 1900s, but rare sightings have been reported in the mountains.
Weasels often surprise people by hanging out on the summits of peaks. While they tend to inhabit lower-elevation regions, they may venture high to prey on unsuspecting rodents sheltered in high talus fields. Badgers are low-slung animals that resemble superskunks. I spotted one outside the town of Mancos, an impressive fellow sporting a fashionable gray-and-white coat. Coyotes are masters of adaptation and can live anywhere, from the slums of Los Angeles to the alpine boreal forests of Alaska. It is a special treat to hear the lonesome howl of the coyote echoing in the night—and to hear that howl answered by his fellows far away.
Mountain goats and Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep are often confused. Bighorn sheep are masters of the mountain, moving about steep cliffs with fearless ease. These nondomesticated cousins of farm sheep should not be called rams, a term that denotes an uncastrated male sheep. Bighorn sheep are noted for their curled horns, which are used primarily in contests of strength between males during the mating season. By butting their heads with incredible force, they use the “Mike Tyson system” of wooing female mates—brute force. Bighorn sheep are the official state animal of Colorado and the mascot of Colorado State University.
Mountain goats are often snowy white (and keeping those coats clean is no easy task while cavorting on dirty mountaintops). Their name is a bit of a misnomer, as they are more closely related to antelopes than goats. Much like bighorn sheep, they are master rock climbers. On more than one occasion, I’ve seen lines of goats walk effortlessly across rock faces I would rate at least class 4 rock climbing (see section on class ratings). Adult mountain goats weighing 200 pounds can scale 60-degree slopes with ease. With their tufted beards and wise, expressive eyes, they are another species that can be gentle as a lamb or brazen as a bull. Be warned: An angry mountain goat can inflict some serious damage on an unassuming hiker, especially if said hiker is on a narrow ledge. Give them their space, and they will almost always peacefully pass on by.
Yellow-bellied marmots are among the most common critters in the mountains. These beaverlike rodents are charming and cute, but they do have a sinister side. Many have completely lost their fear of humans, boldly rummaging through backpacks or approaching hikers to beg for food. Many a tent has been gnawed through and many a food bag ripped asunder by marmots. Nighttime assaults on tents can be especially annoying, as the persistent pests not only threaten your food, but they can also rob you of precious sleep. Marmots are also quite curious about parked automobiles, and more than one has been known to chew clean through rubber hoses, lured by the sweet scent of brake fluid or antifreeze (both of which are obviously toxic). Marmots can be pesky at times, but the mountains wouldn’t be the same without them.
Pikas are small, grayish, mouselike animals with large ears. They can be seen popping in and out of rocky talus fields, industriously gathering straw and flowers for their dens. No doubt you have heard their trademark “rubber ducky” squeak at one time or another. Their soft gray fur is indicative of their relation to rabbits; they are of the same family. Amazingly, pikas do not hibernate in the winter. Instead, they rely on densely insulated burrows and large reserves of stored food to get them through the cold months. This incredible system makes them one of the elite animals that can actually endure winters above 14,000 feet. Biologists fear pikas may be headed toward extinction as development and pollution encroach on their environment.
Beavers are always hard at work in high-elevation ponds. Beavers that live in higher elevations develop thick and luxuriant coats, a trait that made them appealing to early fur trappers. Salt-loving porcupines are the second-largest rodents in Colorado, behind beavers. River otters were believed extinct in Colorado by 1970, but efforts to reintroduce new populations have been successful, notably along the Dolores, South Platte, and Colorado Rivers. These playful members of the weasel family are a delight to watch as they frolic on riverbanks, tumbling and swimming just for the fun of it. The unmistakable stench of the skunk indicates that they too are out in the mountains. Mink and muskrats round out the smaller water-loving mammals. Like beavers and river otters, they are semiaquatic animals that live on the banks of rivers, ponds, and lakes.
Finally, how can we forget about the little guys? Uinta chipmunks are curious and bold, and too often their cuteness is rewarded with an ill-advised handout of pretzels or peanuts. They need to retain their foraging skills to get them through the winter, so please make a point of not sharing, even if they are agreeable to taking food from your hand. Golden-mantled ground squirrels are often mistaken for chipmunks because they share the same habitats, color schemes, and personalities. An easy way to tell the two apart: Chipmunks have stripes on their furry faces and squirrels do not. A variety of rabbits exist in Colorado. The mountain cottontail is the most common; as a result, these bunnies serve as a food source for coyotes, mountain lions, and other predators. Snowshoe hares are speedy animals whose coats change color with the seasons. The smallest of the mammals include field mice, pocket gophers, and shrews.
On the Wing: Major Birds of the Rocky Mountains
Bird-watching has gone mainstream in the past few years, proving that it’s not only nerdy foreigners in giant Coke-bottle glasses who peep at the life in the sky (which is not to imply that I have ever subscribed to the stereotype that bird-watchers are necessarily nerdy, foreign, or visually impaired!). Birds in the Rocky Mountains are plentiful and come in a delightful array of colors. There are far too many to cover in this brief overview, but I’ll note some of the most prevalent birds you’ll encounter in the mountains. (Bird lovers should check out birding.com/wheretobird/colorado.asp or pick up a copy of Birds of Colorado Field Guide by Stan Tekiela, published by Adventure Publications).
No other bird conveys majesty on the wing quite like the bald eagle. Bald eagles were nearly extinct in the lower US by the early 20th century, but they have made a great comeback, thanks to conservation efforts. (The only American bald eagles born outside of North America in this century were hatched in European zoos.) Today, a healthy population flourishes in Colorado. Females may have a wingspan of 7 feet and are larger than their male counterparts. An interesting bit of eagle trivia: Native Americans are rumored to have set up eagle traps on the summit of Longs Peak, giving strength to the argument that John W. Powell wasn’t the first person to stand atop that fabled 14er. Golden eagles are slightly smaller than bald eagles and have brownish-beige colorings. Incredibly agile in flight, these birds of prey mate for life and are one of the few threats to rodents living above 13,000 feet.
Peregrine falcons prefer cold mountain regions, migrating north to the Arctic and south to the Rockies and other northern American mountain regions. Because they are seasonal visitors, your best chance to see peregrine falcons is during spring and early summer. They are unrivaled as the fastest animals on earth, capable of unleashing a free fall, diving attack that regularly exceeds 200 miles per hour! In this incredible display, called a stoop, the falcon folds its wings, extends the razor-sharp talons on its feet, and plummets at mind-bending speeds toward an unsuspecting bird below. The aim is to damage or completely sheer off a wing (a direct impact would injure both birds). When the disabled prey hits the ground, the falcon descends to finish off the job. If you are fortunate enough to witness a peregrine falcon stoop, the awesome image will remain in your mind for years to come.
Red-tailed hawks are smaller simulacrums of the golden hawk. Whenever you hear the telltale screech of a bird in movies or on TV, chances are that you are hearing the distinct cry of the red-tailed hawk.
Ravens and crows can be found throughout Colorado. Both are large black birds with fancy ebony beaks. The two are difficult to differentiate. One major difference can be seen in their flying postures: crows tend to flap, flap, flap their wings, while ravens will flap a little and then soar through the air, similar to the way hawks fly.
Gray jays are friendly avian beggars with stylish gray and black markings. Jays relentlessly haunt campsites and picnic tables, looking for scraps of food. Mountain bluebirds are a striking electric-blue color, painted the same hue as the clear mountain sky. As you make your way along mountain trails, several varieties of swallows may gleefully zip by you with an audible thwipp. Appropriately named redwing blackbirds are distinguished by the bright red “armband” on the shoulders of their black wings. Robins, owls, ducks, cranes, herons, and woodpeckers are also common in the mountains.
Ground-patrolling birds are abundant. White-tailed ptarmigans are extremely likable, peaceful fellows. They amble about on the tundra, only mildly concerned when hikers approach. “Mumbling” ptarmigans often have broods of adorable chicks in tow. Ptarmigans are masters of camouflage, with brownish, speckled, ground-imitating feathers in the summer and pure snow-white plumage in the winter. On one occasion, I came across pockets of nearly invisible white ptarmigans huddled against the cold in a January subzero whiteout. Their hearty, stoic, stick-it-out approach to winter earns my respect. The more fidgety pheasant is equally good at camouflage but has a bad habit of abandoning its guise when hikers come too near. The loud and frantic flapping of startled pheasants has been scaring the living daylights out of hikers since time immemorial. There are other grouse species in Colorado, none of them as bizarre as the rarely seen Gunnison sage-grouse. Looking like a ruffled member of avian aristocracy, the male of this species has a distinctive white ring of feathers on its neck that it inflates with air sacs during mating rituals—what lady-grouse could resist such a display?
Storms roll into the Pacific Peak basin.
Last, but not least, are the iridescent hummingbirds that hover about in search of nectar. Usually blue-green or yellowish in color, hummingbirds are often mistaken for large bugs upon first sight. Despite their small size, they are curious creatures, prone to investigating bright-colored clothing and backpacks.
Something Fishy
Fish in the pure, cold mountain streams are the object of anglers’ affections (and often the objects of their meals as well). The only trout truly native to Colorado’s higher mountain lakes is the sleek cutthroat trout; other members of the trout family have been introduced. These include the speckled rainbow trout, brown trout, and brook trout. The mountain whitefish is another native species; it prefers to live in lower-elevation rivers. Introduced and stocked species include the landlocked Kokanee salmon and lake trout.
Fishing is a big industry in Colorado, and those hoping to participate need to acquire a license from the Colorado Department of Wildlife (wildlife.state.co.us/fishing; [303] 297-1192). Many high-altitude lakes are stocked by aerial drops in the spring, making for fine fishing throughout the summer and autumn months.
Animal Encounters
What to Do if You Encounter a Mountain Lion
Mountain lion encounters are rare, since the big cat is an elusive animal. In areas where human development infringes on habitat and territory (such as Boulder and Colorado Springs) the chance of seeing lions increases. Hikers are seldom bothered by mountain lions; attacks on humans usually happen as a result of the chase-and-kill reflex triggered by a runner, biker, or jogger.
Unlike bears and other predators, mountain lion behavior is highly unpredictable. Lions may quietly stalk unsuspecting passersby until they have exited the cat’s territory without incident. Other times, lions will burst out of the woods for no apparent reason other than to attack. If you come across a mountain lion, do not run! Mountain lions (who can run close to 45 miles per hour) can easily chase down a human (who, on average, can run about 20 miles per hour). If you come upon a lion, look at it without directly gazing into its eyes (focus on the feet). Slowly back away; if the animal is focused on you, talk firmly but calmly.
If you come across a mountain lion, do not run! Mountain lions (who can run close to 45 miles per hour) can easily chase down a human (who, on average, can run about 20 miles per hour).
More extreme measures need to be taken if the lion has an active interest in you. When a lion perks up and begins stalking you, you must act. Do everything you can to make yourself look bigger, including opening your coat or waving around your hiking poles and arms. Groups of hikers should huddle together and make noise, throwing rocks or sticks at the lion. Try to pick up potential weapons without crouching down. Do not turn your back on a mountain lion. Children and smaller people, usually women, should get behind larger companions. If the confrontation has gotten to this stage, aggressive scare tactics should repel mountain lions (who aren’t used to having their prey fight back).
In the worst-case scenario—an attack—fight back with all you have. Punch, kick, swing, bite, scratch, and aim for the eyes or nose. Try to stay on your feet and get back up if you get knocked over. Mountain lion attacks usually come in one or two powerful waves; these cats are not endurance fighters. This is not universally true, however, as emaciated lions may fight to the last. Never play dead with mountain lions. This apocryphal defense only applies to some grizzly bears. A mountain lion will seize the opportunity of passive prey by administering a deadly bite to the neck. Climbing trees is another bad idea. Mountain lions are proficient climbers, and you’ll only end up out on a limb. If you successfully fend off the animal, leave the area immediately. You’ll probably be roughed up if you’ve survived an attack. Keep your guard up; patient mountain lions are capable of regrouping and finishing off wounded prey. Report any attacks to the local sheriff or wildlife bureau.
What to Do if You Encounter a Black Bear
Feared, hated, and reviled for centuries, black bears have earned an unfair reputation as bloodthirsty killers. They are nowhere near as aggressive as grizzly bears, yet they carry the burden of being associated with their ferocious cousins. Many are shy and will run away at the first sight of humans. Most conflicts occur in areas where human and bear habitats overlap (even then, bears are more prone to raid a garbage can than attack a person). Most black bear attacks are defensive in nature, with the attacker usually defending a kill or protecting cubs.
Black bear attacks are rare, but they do happen, most often when a hiker surprises a bear or comes too near a den with cubs. If you encounter a black bear, give it space. If the bear does not go away, you need to leave the area—even if it means missing out on a coveted summit. Black bears aren’t looking to pick a fight. If you see them stand up on their hind legs, it is not always an aggressive action; they are simply trying to get a better view of things. If a bear becomes uncomfortable, it will begin growling, slapping the ground, or clamping its jaws as a warning. This is your cue to leave. Back away slowly and do not turn your back on the bear; as with mountain lions, look at the animal but not directly into its eyes.
One thing to note is that most of the audible and visible displays of a black bear are defense mechanisms designed to scare you off. Even the “bluff charge” where a bear runs at you while growling is more often than not a (terrifying) warning, telling you to get lost. In most circumstances, there is no reason to intimidate the bear. Quietly leaving the area is the best decision for both of you.
While their habits are somewhat predictable, that does not mean that black bears will never assault humans. When they decide to attack, they will not bother with the defensive behavior noted above. An aggressive bear may casually walk over on all fours without barking or growling, giving the illusion of a harmless saunter. A seemingly calm bear coming toward you is a threat. At this point, you must take measures to fend it off, including making yourself look larger. Yell out loud and throw rocks, sticks, and whatever else is around at the bear. Do not run, but slowly back away. Bears are excellent runners, swimmers, and tree climbers. Again, research has shown that most black bear attacks are defensive in nature, usually by a sow protecting her cubs. Measured swats or light bites that do not break the skin are extremely effective in frightening off intrusive hikers.
In the rare case of an all-out attack, fight back. As with mountain lions, do not play dead. Most black bears only want you out of their territory, and playing dead leaves you in the danger zone with a greater chance of being killed. Bear spray may give you peace of mind, but its effectiveness in real life is marginal at best. A determined bear will continue to attack through the pain, and you may end up blinding yourself in the confusion.
The key to bear safety is to avoid confrontations that may turn ugly. Be smart and respect bears of all sizes.
Tips and Common Sense When Dealing with Wildlife
Always give animals ample space and respect. Elk, deer, and other “gentle” wildlife can attack if frightened or threatened.
Never attempt to feed any wildlife, period.
When scaring away smaller animals, such as marmots, aim carefully when throwing sticks or stones. Your goal is to scare them, not injure them.
A loud whistle is a good first-line defense against animals that get too close.
Be especially cautious when in close company of mountain goats and bighorn sheep. These encounters often happen on high ledges or ridges, where a well-timed head-butt could create a nasty fall.
Report any animal attacks to park rangers or to the Colorado Division of Wildlife.
Stay alert during dusk and dawn, as these are prime hunting conditions for predators.
When hiking in remote areas, make as much ambient noise as you can, such as conversations, singing, whistling, and so on. In situations such as these, that friend who is an endless chatterbox becomes a valuable commodity. You want to make yourself known, so as not to scare any animals in the area. Bear bells are encouraged.
Additional Tips for Those Who Hike Alone
Use a bear bell or other noisemaking device. I have two when I go out solo, and I secure one to each of my hiking poles. The natural motion of the poles makes them loudly ring out.
Avoid using an MP3 player, iPod, or Walkman, especially in tree line.
Leave a detailed plan of where you’ll be hiking with a friend or family member. Include your route, trailhead, what gear you’ll be wearing, and what time you expect to be home. Include emergency phone numbers to contact for the person keeping an eye on you.
Remember to keep your first-aid kit stocked; it goes without saying that you should bring one on every hike.
Stay calm during one-on-one encounters with wild animals. Even if you’re terrified, maintaining a confident demeanor and dominant posture will help in confrontations with predators.
Trees, Plants, Fungi, and Flowers
Alpine Flowers
Alpine flowers are among the most rugged and beautiful in the world. Wildflowers bloom in every hue, often together in a single meadow. Seeing natural bouquets in remote mountain meadows is a treat even for the most macho of hikers. Of the hundreds of purple, red, blue, yellow, pink, and orange flowers, there are a few that stand out. My personal favorite is the whimsical elephant’s head, a pink specimen that grows in watery areas between 8,000 and 11,000 feet. Flowers on the stalk resemble a totem pole of miniature pachyderms, each with a gleefully raised trunk. Mountain columbine, the state flower of Colorado, comes in a variety of shades. Columbine alternates colored stripes (usually light blue, purple, or red) with white petals that spread out like a parasol. Monk’s hood is a popular purple perennial that is a relative of the buttercup. Indian paintbrush is a red or white flower that looks like a tussled thistle. In years of heavy rainfall, the “paintbrush” part of the plant may bloom fiery red. Other flowers of note include lupines, cinquefoils, Parry’s primroses, wild roses, buttercups, spring beauties, larkspurs, white phlox, king’s crowns, and marsh marigolds. A good book to consider if you’d like to learn more about alpine flowers is the budget-friendly Colorado Flowers and Trees by James Kavanagh, published by Waterford Press.
Alpine flowers are tough and beautiful.
One of the best surprises to be found in Colorado’s backcountry are wild berries. Raspberries, blueberries, mountain strawberries, huckleberries, and blackberries are among the treats growing wild. Shrubs that produce such berries usually bloom in late summer, mostly in areas close to a steady water supply. Wild strawberries are a unique and succulent surprise, just edging out wild raspberries as my personal favorite.
Fungus among Us
Wild mushrooms are another mountain delicacy. Unless you are well-versed in mycology, however, never attempt to eat unknown fungus. Many mushrooms are poisonous and can make you very sick. For those who know what they are looking for, keep in mind that many wilderness areas require a permit to gather mushrooms. Permits are usually free and serve as a way for biologists to monitor the growth of certain mushrooms; call the park service ahead of time to find out more.
Areas with high precipitation, such as the central San Juans, host a variety of quirky mushrooms that make colorful decorations along the trail. The poisonous fly agaric is like a mushroom you’d find in a fairy tale, with its bright red dome speckled with white faux barnacles. Shaggy stems are yellow mushrooms that look like they were molded from fluffed custard. Giant boletuses resemble huge ground sponges in color and texture. Those in the know will keep an eye out for tasty morel mushrooms, prized culinary delicacies that proliferate in the wake of forest fires. (Connoisseurs will actually follow wildfires around the country, in hopes of scavenging a harvest of morels.)
If you are interested in learning more about Colorado’s mushrooms, check out the Colorado Mycological Society’s Web page at cmsweb.org. This comprehensive website has information on the different types of fungi and mushrooms growing in Colorado’s mountains.
Notable Shrubs
Hikers have a love/hate relationship with the various mountain willows found in the high country. These are among the toughest plants on Earth and are the only widespread vegetation found in the high arctic regions. On the plus side, many willows color the landscape in autumn with tranquil reds and yellows. Occasionally they work well as emergency handholds, and dense thickets can provide shelter when fast-moving thunderstorms appear out of the blue. Their sturdy roots also help keep soil from being washed off steep slopes. On the negative side, many willows grow more than 6 feet tall and present a veritable obstacle course for bushwhackers. Besides being extremely difficult to navigate through in thick patches, the branches are scratchy, and their dense roots can disguise swampy holes just waiting to swallow your boots. Trying to navigate a willow patch in winter can make the most mild-mannered hiker explode in expletives, especially after postholing for an hour to hike half a mile.
As you ascend higher, you will encounter the group of thick, low-lying shrubs collectively known as the krumholtz, a German word meaning “twisted wood.” The presence of these shrubs denotes the termination of tree line, which can happen anywhere between 10,400 and 12,200 feet in Colorado. Shrubs forming the krumholtz are incredibly tough; they had better be if they hope to withstand the fury of the elements on a daily basis. Versions of subalpine firs, Engelmann spruces, and limber pines are reconfigured in dwarfed proportions to better adapt to their harsh environment. They grow in dense outcrops, usually protected by rocks. Year after year, they endure weeks of subzero temperatures, hurricane-force winds, torrential downpours, and a very brief growing season. Although they may appear lifeless, many of the shrubs you’ll encounter in the krumholtz are hundreds of years old. Be respectful of such wizened elders when you trek in alpine regions.
Topping out the list of high-altitude plants are the tiny alpine avens, a vital food source for resident pikas. Growing in small, dense patches, avens are surrounded by brawny, bright green stalks that resemble little ferns. Yellow or white flowers bloom in the summer and early autumn. Avens have developed amazing alpine adaptations: long taproots grow deep into the scarce alpine soil to suck up fleeting moisture, thick “hairs” protect stems and leaves from wind damage, and red pigmentation is used to filter out powerful ultraviolet rays and to efficiently convert sunlight into heat.
Major Trees
Conifers (trees whose seeds are encased in woody cones) dominate the mountainsides where conditions are favorable to growth. Engelmann spruces, Douglas firs, subalpine firs, and lodgepole pines grow in areas that are cool and have adequate water supplies. Drier regions (usually the sunnier south-facing hills and valleys) are more suited to ponderosa pines. Blue spruces and western hemlocks are other common trees growing between 8,000 and 12,000 feet.
Aspen trees are symbolic of Colorado’s forests. They are deciduous (Latin for “temporary”) trees, meaning they shed their leaves to conserve energy when cold weather arrives. Colorado’s aspen trees are known as quaking or trembling aspens because of the way sunlight plays off their rounded leaves and because of the “shimmery” sound they make when the wind blows. Aspens are members of the willow family. Each stand of trees is actually one living unit, with every tree sharing a common network of roots. Trees that spawn from this network (known as clones, because they share identical genetic markers) live between 80 and 140 years before dying off and letting new trees generate from the root system. These roots go deep enough into the ground to resist the devastating effects of fire and avalanches; this is why you will see aspen stands rebound in areas affected by these phenomena, while other trees take years or decades to repopulate. Modern biologists have proposed the oldest living thing on Earth may be an enormous aspen stand in Utah known as Pando (see sidebar). The powdery film on the bark of aspen trees serves as a natural sunscreen; in a pinch, it can also work as a very basic sunblock for human skin.
Lower elevations find other deciduous trees: poplar, cottonwood, and balsam trees are common near rivers and lakes. Because of their fibrous makeup, these trees split poorly, rot easily, and are ill-suited for burning. If you are hunting for campfire wood, stick with the sappy (but burnable) evergreen trees or dried aspen logs.
All Hail Pando, King of All Living Things!
Pando is a fitting name for a great king; wouldn’t you agree? Pando (Latin for “I spread”) refers to an enormous quaking aspen colony located near Fish Lake in the Wasatch Range in southern Utah. Formed from a single seed, the “trembling giant” encompasses more than 107 acres and is estimated to be at least 80,000 years old. The trees that make up Pando are genetic clones that share a common, archaic network of roots. Trees that sprout from this matrix live approximately 140 years and are replaced by fresh saplings on a regular basis. Pando supports more than 40,000 trees!
Pando is considered to be a single organism; think of the individual trees that grow from the shared roots as being like hairs on a human head. They live, grow, and die—with the genesis of new trees from a single living source. While it is impossible to weigh such a massive growth, biologists say that Pando makes a great case for the heaviest living thing on Earth (in direct competition with the fabled redwood trees in California). Ideal climate conditions have helped the colony live for so long. Some biologists think Pando may be closer to a million years old. To put it into human terms: Modern man (Homo sapiens) came onto the scene about 40,000 years ago and migrated to the Americas about 10,000 years ago.
Pando’s survival strategies have endured fire, ice, wind, and heat. Assuming water levels in Utah do not drastically change, Pando’s reign could carry on for thousands of more years. Long live the king!
