Читать книгу Theory and Practice of Couples and Family Counseling - James Robert Bitter - Страница 45

Like with most fields associated with psychotherapy, it is hard not to start with Sigmund Freud, who brought the discipline of psychology into the modern era. Freud was not without colleagues. Indeed, many prominent psychologists and individual therapists in Europe met with Freud regularly. Some, like Freud, lived in Vienna, and starting in 1906, they often attended Wednesday evening meetings at Freud’s home, which would later be called meetings of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (Nunberg & Federn, 1962, 1967, 1974). Although Freud (1909/1957a) once coached a father on how to work with his son in a case referred to as Little Hans, Freud himself did not engage in family counseling, nor did he apply what we would now call a systemic approach. He was focused on individuals and the intrapsychic.

One of his contemporaries, however, was Alfred Adler, and Adler both thought systemically (using such concepts as the family constellation, family atmosphere, and birth order) and actually engaged in family counseling sessions in open, community settings. One of Adler’s students and later his colleague was Rudolf Dreikurs, who immigrated to the United States before the fall of Germany to the Nazis. After Adler’s death in 1937, it was Dreikurs who systematized the Adlerian family counseling process and who developed the child-rearing models that would become the foundation for most of the current parenting programs used in the United States. Still, this family model went mostly underground until the 1950s, and many, if not most, family counseling and therapy textbooks tend to dismiss Adlerian family practice, and Dreikurs’s work in particular, as child guidance work (Becvar & Becvar, 2013; I. Goldenberg et al., 2017; Nichols & Davis, 2020).

By the 1940s, most psychiatrists and many other psychotherapists were trained in psychoanalysis. Many of the early Freudians (Erik Erikson, W. R. D. Fairbairn, Edith Jacobson, Melanie Klein, Heinz Kohut, and Margaret Mahler, to name a few) expanded Freud’s original drive/structural psychology into increasingly precise theories of development with an emphasis on early attachment to mothers (object relations), which would presage the current emphasis on attachment theory and parenting (see Pickert, 2012). Of all the neo-Freudians, Harry Stack Sullivan (1996) placed the strongest emphasis on interpersonal relations in psychotherapy and laid the foundation for what we would come to understand as a participant observer (or second-order cybernetic) model.

Two psychoanalytically trained therapists, Nathan Ackerman and Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy, had an enormous impact on the early development of family counseling and therapy in the United States. Nathan Ackerman (1958, 1966) began his career at Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas. Though psychoanalytically trained, Ackerman (1937) published one of America’s first articles on family therapy in the Bulletin of the Kansas Mental Hygiene Society, declaring the family to be a social-emotional unit and focusing on work with nonpsychotic children who nonetheless presented for counseling with disturbing behaviors within the family. Among his many innovations, he began sending therapists into homes to study families in their natural environment. In the 1950s, he was organizing panels and meetings within a number of different professional organizations to address family practice.

In 1960, Ackerman opened a family institute in New York City that still serves as a center for the training of family therapists, although the models used today are vastly different from the one he initiated at his institute. Ackerman is also credited with cofounding (with Don Jackson) the first journal devoted to family practice, called Family Process, which is still published today. Ackerman combined his psychoanalytic approach with a new understanding of family roles to address the impact that families had on their members. He was direct, sometimes confrontational, but also provided interpretations that helped families understand the processes involved in troubled systems (N. W. Ackerman, 1966).

Over the years, the Ackerman Institute would attract many highly regarded family therapists who would make major contributions to the field, including scholar-practitioners like Peggy Papp and Lynn Hoffman. Papp was one of many Bowen-influenced therapists who focused on the role of women in families, and like Hoffman she would bring strategic interventions to the work at the Ackerman Institute before her work would evolve into a more exploratory approach. We return to the work of both of these women later.

Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy also started his career as a psychoanalytically trained psychiatrist. Born in Hungary, he came to the United States in 1948. In the 1950s, he would team up with Geraldine Spark, a psychoanalytic social worker, and together they would create an open approach to family counseling that focused on reciprocal roles, ethical commitments of family members to one another, and a multigenerational focus (Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark, 1973/1984). In 1957, Boszormenyi-Nagy opened the first Family Therapy Department at Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric Institute. There he attracted a number of key figures in both individual and family therapy, including Ray Birdwhistell, who introduced kinesics (body language) to the field; Gerald Zuk, who focused on triadic family counseling; and James Framo, who along with Murray Bowen would focus his work on multiple generations.

For Boszormenyi-Nagy, the central issues in family counseling were trust and loyalty. These attributes had to be shared and evenly exchanged so that there was a balance in the family; that is, every member could count on other members in the balance of the family ledger. This distinctly ethical approach to family counseling was thoroughly described by Boszormenyi-Nagy (1987) and by Boszormenyi-Nagy and Framo (1965/1985).

James Framo would eventually leave for Southern California, where he would begin to define a bridge between individual and multigenerational family counseling (Framo, 1992). His emphasis on therapists knowing themselves and paying attention to family-of-origin relationships places him clearly in the line of influence that would eventually become object relations family counseling as well as Bowen family therapy.

Other key figures had originally been psychoanalytically trained but went on to develop early approaches to family counseling. Theodore Lidz and his colleagues at Yale University would focus on fathering practices in families with schizophrenic patients, relieving mothers of their often-blamed position. Lyman Wynne, a Harvard-trained psychiatrist, headed the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) in the early 1950s. His work, which focused on dysfunctional communication in families, gave us such concepts as pseudomutuality, a facade of cooperation that masks conflict and derails intimacy; pseudohostility, a rather stereotyped approach to bickering or fighting that again masks a deeper hostility; and the rubber fence, or the ability of tightly controlled, pathological families to let members function in the outside world yet haul them back into family isolation if they go beyond simple tasks like going to school or work. And John Elderkin Bell was inspired by what he believed was John Bowlby’s work with a family in England and returned to Clark University in Massachusetts to invent family group counseling.

Although Adler was clearly engaged in family counseling in the 1920s, it was Rudolf Dreikurs who systematized Adler’s approach and brought it to the United States (Terner & Pew, 1978). In 1940, Dreikurs introduced the four goals of children’s misbehavior and combined this concept with an investigation of the family constellation (the family system), interactions during a typical day, and a process for goal disclosure with children, which actually led to what Dreikurs called a recognition reflex, or a quick smile with a twinkle in the child’s eye.

Dreikurs opened the Alfred Adler Institute in 1954 and began teaching Adlerian open forum family counseling in colleges, community agencies, and schools throughout the Chicago area. In a course at Northwestern University, he provided initial training to two students, Ray Lowe and Manford Sonstegard, who would start the spread of his methods across the United States. Lowe brought Dreikurs to Oregon, where he would engage the interest of Oscar Christensen. Christensen would later leave Oregon to teach at the University of Arizona, where he would train family counselors for more than 30 years. Similarly, Sonstegard brought Dreikurs to Iowa, where “Sonste” had started his work. When Sonste moved to West Virginia University, he began to train Adlerian family counselors and paraprofessionals throughout the eastern part of the United States and in Europe. In 1974, I joined Sonste in West Virginia; together, we would train Adlerian family counselors for more than 30 years.

One of Dreikurs’s other students was Don Dinkmeyer, a man destined to be one of the most prolific writers in Adlerian circles. Together with his son, Don Dinkmeyer, Jr., and other Adlerian leaders, like Len Sperry and Jon Carlson, Don Dinkmeyer set out to define Adlerian practice with couples and families. The Dinkmeyers also developed STEP: Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (Dinkmeyer et al., 1997). Today no two people have done more to articulate the Adlerian approach to couples and families than Len Sperry and Jon Carlson.