Читать книгу Principles of Virology - Jane Flint, S. Jane Flint - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 The human virome. Our knowledge of the diversity of viruses that ca...Figure 1.2 Tracking ancient human migrations by the viruses they carried. The ...Figure 1.3 References to viral diseases from the ancient literature. (A) An im...Figure 1.4 Three Broken Tulips . A painting by Nicolas Robert (1624–1685), now ...Figure 1.5 Characteristic smallpox lesions in a young victim. Illustrations li...Figure 1.6 Pasteur’s famous swan-neck flasks provided passive exclusion of micro...Figure 1.7 The pace of discovery of new infectious agents in the dawn of virolog...Figure 1.8 Filter systems used to characterize/purify virus particles. (A) The...Figure 1.9 Electron micrographs of virus particles following negative staining. ...Figure 1.10 Size matters. (A) Sizes of animal and plant cells, bacteria, virus...Figure 1.11 Lesions induced by tobacco mosaic virus on an infected tobacco leaf....Figure 1.12 The Baltimore classification. The Baltimore classification assigns...Figure 1.13 Viral families sorted according to the nature of the viral genomes. ...Figure 1.14 Landmarks in the study of viruses. Key discoveries and technical a...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 The viral infectious cycle. The infectious cycle of poliovirus is s...Figure 2.2 Different types of cell culture used in virology. Confluent cell mo...Figure 2.3 Production of organoids from stem cells. The different germ layers ...Figure 2.4 Production of airway-liquid interface cultures of bronchial epithel...Figure 2.5 Development of cytopathic effect. (A) Cell rounding and lysis durin...Figure 2.6 Growth of viruses in embryonated eggs. The cutaway view of an embry...Figure 2.7 Plaques formed by different animal viruses. (A) Photomicrograph of ...Figure 2.8 The dose-response curve of the plaque assay. The number of plaques ...Figure 2.9 Transformation assay. Chicken cells transformed by two different st...Figure 2.10 Hemagglutination assay. (Top) Samples of different influenza virus...Figure 2.11 Polysome analysis. To study the association of mRNAs with ribosome...Figure 2.12 Direct and indirect methods for antigen detection. (A) The sample ...Figure 2.13 Detection of viral antigen or antibodies against viruses by enzyme...Figure 2.14 Lateral flow immunochromatographic assay. A slide or “dipstick” co...Figure 2.15 Using fluorescent proteins to study virus particles and virus-infe...Figure 2.16 Polymerase chain reaction. The DNA to be amplified is mixed with n...Figure 2.17 Workflow for VS-Virome. Shown is the computational pipeline design...Figure 2.18 Comparison of bacterial and viral reproduction. (A) Growth curve f...Figure 2.19 One-step growth curves of animal viruses. (A) Growth of a nonenvel...Figure 2.20 Chromatin immunoprecipitation and DNA sequencing, ChiP-seq. This t...Figure 2.21 Interactions between human proteins and Nipah virus proteins. Netw...Figure 2.22 Single-cell virology. (A) A microfluidic device with 6,400 wells i...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 The Baltimore classification. All viruses must produce mRNA that ca...Figure 3.2 Structure and expression of viral double-stranded DNA genomes. (A) ...Figure 3.3 Structure and expression of viral gapped, circular, double-stranded D...Figure 3.4 Structure and expression of viral single-stranded DNA genomes. (A) ...Figure 3.5 Structure and expression of viral double-stranded RNA genomes. (A) ...Figure 3.6 Structure and expression of viral single-stranded (+) RNA genomes. Figure 3.7 Structure and expression of viral single-stranded (+) RNA genomes wit...Figure 3.8 Structure and expression of viral single-stranded (–) RNA genomes. Figure 3.9 Genome structures in cartoons and in real life. (A) Linear represen...Figure 3.10 Information retrieval from viral genomes. Different strategies for...Figure 3.11 Reassortment of influenza virus RNA segments. (A) Progeny viruses ...Figure 3.12 Recovery of infectivity from cloned DNA of RNA viruses. (A) The in...Figure 3.13 Use of RNAi, haploid cells, and CRISPR-Cas9 to study virus-host inte...Figure 3.14 Adenovirus vectors. High-capacity adenovirus “gutless” vectors con...Figure 3.15 Adeno-associated virus vectors. (A) Map of the genome of wild-type...Figure 3.16 Retroviral vectors. The minimal viral sequences required for retro...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Variation in the size and shape of virus particles. (A) Cryo-electr...Figure 4.2 Free energy changes in virus particles. Mature virus particles occu...Figure 4.3 Cryo-EM and image reconstruction illustrated with rotavirus. Figure 4.4 Determination of virus structure by X-ray diffraction. This method ...Figure 4.5 Difference mapping illustrated by a 6-Å-resolution reconstruction of ...Figure 4.6 Virus structures with helical symmetry. (A) Schematic illustration ...Figure 4.7 Structure of a ribonucleoprotein-like complex of vesicular stomatitis...Figure 4.8 Structure of an influenza A virus ribonucleoprotein. (A) (Left) Rib...Figure 4.9 Icosahedral packing in simple structures. (A) An icosahedron, which...Figure 4.10 The principle of triangulation: formation of large capsids with icos...Figure 4.11 Structure of the parvovirus adeno-associated virus 2. (A) Ribbon d...Figure 4.12 Packing and structures of poliovirus proteins. (A) The packing of ...Figure 4.13 Interactions among the proteins of the poliovirus capsid. (A) Ribb...Figure 4.14 Structural features of simian virus 40. (A) View of the simian vir...Figure 4.15 Structural features of adenovirus particles. (A) The organization ...Figure 4.16 Interactions among major and minor proteins of the adenoviral capsid...Figure 4.17 Structures of members of the Reoviridae. The organization of mamma...Figure 4.18 Asymmetric capsids of retroviruses. (A) Variation in the morpholog...Figure 4.19 Ordered RNA genomes in small and large icosahedral virus particles. ...Figure 4.20 Packing of double-stranded DNA genome. (A) Dense packing in the he...Figure 4.21 Conserved organization of the RNA-packaging proteins of nonsegmented...Figure 4.22 Structural and chemical features of a typical viral envelope glycopr...Figure 4.23 Structures of extracellular domains of viral glycoproteins. These ...Figure 4.24 Structure of a simple enveloped virus, Sindbis virus. (A) Cross se...Figure 4.25 Conserved topology and regular packing of envelope proteins of small...Figure 4.26 Morphological complexity of bacteriophage T4. (A) A model of the v...Figure 4.27 Structural features of herpesvirus particles. (A) Two slices throu...Figure 4.28 Features of mimivirus capsids. (A) Cryo-EM reconstruction of Cafet...Figure 4.29 Virus particles with alternative architectures. Structural feature...Figure 4.30 Atomic force microscopy and its application to human adenovirus part...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Architecture of cell surfaces. Example of epithelial cells with api...Figure 5.2 Experimental strategies for identification and isolation of genes enc...Figure 5.3 Some receptors for virus particles. Schematic diagrams of cell mole...Figure 5.4 Picornavirus-receptor interactions. (A) Structure of poliovirus bou...Figure 5.5 Structure of the adenovirus 12 knob bound to the CAR receptor. (A) ...Figure 5.6 Entry of polyomavirus simian virus 40. Simian virus 40 interacts fi...Figure 5.7 Interaction of sialic acid receptors with the hemagglutinin of influe...Figure 5.8 Interaction of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprot...Figure 5.9 Multiple receptors for herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1). Six (of 15) ...Figure 5.10 Mechanisms for the uptake of macromolecules from extracellular fluid...Figure 5.11 Virus entry and movement in the cytoplasm. Examples of various rou...Figure 5.12 Conformational changes of class I proteins during fusion. The enve...Figure 5.13 Influenza virus entry. The globular heads of HA trimers mediate bi...Figure 5.14 Conservation of the hairpin structure in class I viral fusion protei...Figure 5.15 Fusion at the plasma membrane. (Top) Model for human immunodeficie...Figure 5.16 Entry of Ebolavirus into cells. Virus particles bind cells via an ...Figure 5.17 SNARE-mediated fusion. The change of syntaxin (t-SNARE, purple) fr...Figure 5.18 Conformational changes in class II proteins during fusion. (A) Nin...Figure 5.19 Conformational changes in class III proteins during fusion. Struct...Figure 5.20 Entry of Semliki Forest virus into cells. Semliki Forest virus ent...Figure 5.21 Stepwise uncoating of adenovirus. (A) Adenovirus fiber proteins bi...Figure 5.22 Model for poliovirus entry into cells. The native virus particle (...Figure 5.23 Entry of reovirus into cells. (A) The different stages in cell ent...Figure 5.24 Structure and organization of the nuclear pore complex. (Bottom le...Figure 5.25 Nuclear localization signals. The general form and specific exampl...Figure 5.26 Different strategies for entering the nucleus. (A) Each segment of...Figure 5.27 Uncoating of adenovirus at the nuclear pore complex. After release...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Strategies for replication and mRNA synthesis of RNA virus genomes ar...Figure 6.2 RNA secondary structure. (A) Schematic of different structural moti...Figure 6.3 Structure of viral ribonucleoproteins. (A) Space-filling model of v...Figure 6.4 Protein domain alignments for the four categories of nucleic acid pol...Figure 6.5 Structural elements of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. (A) Ribb...Figure 6.6 Structure of UTP bound to poliovirus 3Dpol. The NTP bridges the fin...Figure 6.7 Mechanisms of initiation of RNA synthesis. De novo initiation may o...Figure 6.8 Mechanism of de novo initiation. (A) Ribbon diagram of RdRP of hepa...Figure 6.9 Uridylylation of VPg. (A) Linkage of VPg to polioviral genomic RNA....Figure 6.10 Poliovirus (−) strand RNA synthesis. The precursor of VPg, 3AB, co...Figure 6.11 Influenza virus RNA synthesis. (A) Viral (−) strand genomes are te...Figure 6.12 Activation of the influenza virus RNA polymerase by specific virion ...Figure 6.13 Functional N- and C-terminal extensions of RNA polymerases. The sm...Figure 6.14 Oligomerization of RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Ribbon diagrams ...Figure 6.15 Structure of a viral RNA helicase. The RNA helicase of the flavivi...Figure 6.16 Genome structure and expression of an alphavirus, Sindbis virus. T...Figure 6.17 Three RNA polymerases with distinct specificities in alphavirus-infe...Figure 6.18 Nidoviral genome organization and expression. (A) Organization of ...Figure 6.19 Vesicular stomatitis viral RNA synthesis. Viral (−) strand genomes...Figure 6.20 Stop-start model of vesicular stomatitis virus mRNA synthesis. The...Figure 6.21 Poly(A) addition and termination at an intergenic region during vesi...Figure 6.22 Moving-template model for influenza virus mRNA synthesis. During R...Figure 6.23 Arenavirus RNA synthesis. Arenaviruses contain two genomic RNA seg...Figure 6.24 mRNA synthesis and replication of double-stranded RNA genomes. The...Figure 6.25 Hepatitis delta virus RNA synthesis. (A) Schematic of the forms of...Figure 6.26 Ribosome-RNA polymerase collisions. A strand of viral RNA is shown...Figure 6.27 RNA recombination. Schematic representation of RNA recombination o...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Conversion of viral genomes to templates for transcription by cellula...Figure 7.2 RNA polymerase II transcriptional control elements. The site of ini...Figure 7.3 Initiation of transcription by RNA polymerase II. Assembly of the c...Figure 7.4 Variations in core RNA polymerase II promoter architecture. Variati...Figure 7.5 Local regulatory sequences of three viral transcriptional control reg...Figure 7.6 Organization of the archetypal simian virus 40 enhancer. The positi...Figure 7.7 Modular organization of sequence-specific transcriptional activators....Figure 7.8 Widespread cellular transcriptional activators of an avian retrovirus...Figure 7.9 Mechanisms of stimulation of transcription by viral proteins. Cellu...Figure 7.10 Cell-type-specific regulators bind to the transcriptional control re...Figure 7.11 The cellular regulator NF-κB and its participation in viral transcri...Figure 7.12 Human immunodeficiency type-1 TAR and the Tat protein. (A) The reg...Figure 7.13 Stimulation of transcription elongation by the human immunodeficienc...Figure 7.14 Molecular mechanisms of stimulation of human immunodeficiency virus ...Figure 7.15 Common features of the simian virus 40 (SV40), human adenovirus type...Figure 7.16 Organization and regulation of the Epstein-Barr virus Zta gene promo...Figure 7.17 Models for transcriptional activation by the herpes simplex virus ty...Figure 7.18 Conformational changes and recruitment of VP16 to herpes simplex vir...Figure 7.19 The adenoviral E1A proteins bind to multiple transcriptional regulat...Figure 7.20 Indirect stimulation of transcription by adenoviral E1A proteins. Figure 7.21 Cellular repressors regulate the activity of the simian virus 40 lat...Figure 7.22 The latency-associated transcripts of herpes simplex virus type 1. ...Figure 7.23 Organization of viral RNA polymerase III promoters. (A) The human ...Figure 7.24 Assembly of an initiation complex on a vaccinia virus early promoter...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Processing of a viral or cellular pre-mRNA synthesized by RNA polymer...Figure 8.2 The 5′ cap structure and its synthesis by cellular or viral enzymes. ...Figure 8.3 A viral unimolecular assembly line for capping. The structure of th...Figure 8.4 Cleavage and polyadenylation of vertebrate pre-mRNAs. The 3′ end of...Figure 8.5 The vaccinia virus capping enzyme and 2′-O-methyltransferase process ...Figure 8.6 Reversible N6 methylation of internal adenosine nucleosides. Intern...Figure 8.7 Inhibition of assembly and release of virus particles by N6 A methyla...Figure 8.8 Splicing of pre-mRNA. (A) Consensus splicing signals in cellular an...Figure 8.9 The conserved mechanism of eukaryotic pre-mRNA splicing. (A) Pathwa...Figure 8.10 Constitutive and alternative splicing. (A) In constitutive splicin...Figure 8.11 Alternative polyadenylation and splicing control the production of b...Figure 8.12 Control of RNA-processing reactions during retroviral gene expressio...Figure 8.13 Alternative polyadenylation and splicing of adenoviral major late tr...Figure 8.14 Cotranscriptional editing of measles virus mRNAs. (A) Proposed mec...Figure 8.15 Editing of hepatitis delta virus RNA by double-stranded RNA adenosin...Figure 8.16 Regulation of export of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 mRNAs by...Figure 8.17 Features and mechanism of Rev protein-dependent export. (A) The fu...Figure 8.18 Export of unspliced RNA of retroviruses with simple genomes and cell...Figure 8.19 Regulation of alternative splicing of viral pre-mRNA. (A) The poly...Figure 8.20 Inhibition of cellular pre-mRNA processing by viral proteins. The ...Figure 8.21 Mechanisms of intrinsic cellular and viral mRNA decay. A major pat...Figure 8.22 Viral proteins initiate mRNA degradation by different mechanisms. ...Figure 8.23 Major pathways of nonsense-mediated mRNA degradation. Nonsense-med...Figure 8.24 Synthesis and function of miRNAs. The precursors of miRNAs (pri-mi...Figure 8.25 The miRNAs of simian virus 40. The circular simian virus 40 genome...Figure 8.26 Cellular lncRNAs that facilitate or impair virus reproduction. Cel...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Viral and cellular proteins that synthesize viral DNA genomes. The ...Figure 9.2 Properties of replicons. (A) Electron micrographs of replicating si...Figure 9.3 Semidiscontinuous DNA synthesis from a bidirectional origin. Synthe...Figure 9.4 The 5′-end problem in replication of linear DNAs. (A) Incomplete sy...Figure 9.5 The origin of simian virus 40 DNA replication. The positions in the...Figure 9.6 Model of the recognition and unwinding of the simian virus 40 origin....Figure 9.7 Synthesis of leading and lagging strands. The DNA polymerase (POL) ...Figure 9.8 A model of the simian virus 40 replication machine. A replication m...Figure 9.9 Function of topoisomerases during simian virus 40 DNA replication. ...Figure 9.10 Replication of parvoviral DNA. (A) Sequence and secondary structur...Figure 9.11 Replication of adenoviral DNA. Assembly of the viral preterminal p...Figure 9.12 Features of the herpes simplex virus type 1 genome. The long (L) a...Figure 9.13 Common features of viral origins of DNA replication. The simian vi...Figure 9.14 Functional organization of simian virus 40 LT. The domains of LT a...Figure 9.15 Structural homology among DNA-binding domains of viral origin recogn...Figure 9.16 Model of origin loading of the papillomaviral E1 initiation protein ...Figure 9.17 Crystal structure of the adenoviral single-stranded-DNA-binding prot...Figure 9.18 Regulation of production of cellular and viral replication proteins....Figure 9.19 Discrete sites of viral replication. (A) Cytoplasmic vaccinia viru...Figure 9.20 Reorganization of PML bodies by the adenoviral E4 Orf3 protein. Mo...Figure 9.21 Common features of the adenovirus-associated virus type 2 lTR and th...Figure 9.22 Licensing of replication from Epstein-Barr virus OriP. (A) Organiz...Figure 9.23 Regulation of papillomaviral DNA replication in epithelial cells. ...Figure 9.24 Proofreading during synthesis. If permanently fixed into the genom...Figure 9.25 The DNA damage response. Damage to the DNA genome, such as a doubl...Figure 9.26 Association of cellular DNA damage response proteins with herpesvira...Figure 9.27 General model for initiation of recombination-dependent replication....Figure 9.28 Isomers of the herpes simplex virus type 1 genome. The organizatio...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Human immunodeficiency type 1 capsid hexamers showing open and close...Figure 10.2 The diploid retroviral genome and a dimerization domain. (A) The d...Figure 10.3 Primer tRNA binding to a retroviral RNA genome. (Top) Linear repre...Figure 10.4 Retroviral reverse transcription: initiation of (–) strand DNA synth...Figure 10.5 Retroviral reverse transcription: first template exchange, mediated ...Figure 10.6 Retroviral reverse transcription: (+) strand DNA synthesis primed fr...Figure 10.7 Retroviral reverse transcription: the second template exchange and f...Figure 10.8 Two models for recombination during reverse transcription. Virtual...Figure 10.9 Domain and subunit relationships of the RTs of different retroviruse...Figure 10.10 Ribbon representation of HIV-1 RT bound to a model RNA template-DNA...Figure 10.11 Model for a DNA-RNA hybrid bound to HIV-1 RT. The RNA template-DN...Figure 10.12 Evolutionary relatedness of RT-like enzymes in bacteria, archaea, e...Figure 10.13 Retroelements resident in eukaryotic genomes and their representati...Figure 10.14 Comparison of the structures of two RTs. (A) The DNA polymerase d...Figure 10.15 Characteristic features of retroviral integration. Unintegrated l...Figure 10.16 Three steps in the retroviral DNA integration process. Endonucleo...Figure 10.17 Sequence preferences of integration sites. The figure shows the 5...Figure 10.18 Models for chromatin tethering of retroviral preintegration complex...Figure 10.19 Host proteins affect the integration process. The abundant host b...Figure 10.20 Domain maps of integrase proteins from different retroviral genera,...Figure 10.21 Crystal structure of the prototype foamy virus integrase tetramer b...Figure 10.22 Arrangement of HIV-1 IN dimer interfaces in the absence of DNA and ...Figure 10.23 Hepadnaviral DNA. The DNA in extracellular hepadnavirus particles...Figure 10.24 Single-cell reproduction cycle for hepadnaviruses. Pathway 1 prov...Figure 10.25 Essential cis-acting signals in pregenomic mRNA. The viral pregen...Figure 10.26 Comparison of hepadnaviral and retroviral RTs. Linear maps of the...Figure 10.27 Model for the assembly of hepadnavirus nucleocapsids. P protein i...Figure 10.28 Critical steps in the pathway of hepadnavirus reverse transcription...Figure 10.29 Model for (+) strand priming. Formation of a hairpin in the (–) s...Figure 10.30 Comparison of the genome replication cycles of cauliflower mosaic v...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Structure of eukaryotic and bacterial/archaeal mRNAs. UTR, untrans...Figure 11.2 Ribosomes and tRNAs. (A) Model of a eukaryotic ribosome. The 80S r...Figure 11.3 5′-cap-dependent assembly of the initiation complex. Initiation pr...Figure 11.4 5′ -end-dependent initiation. (A) Schematic of eIF4G protein. Data...Figure 11.5 Two mechanisms of methionine-independent initiation. (A) A sequenc...Figure 11.6 Hypothetical model of ribosome shunting. The 40S ribosomal subunit...Figure 11.7 Six types of IRES. The 5′ untranslated regions from genome RNAs of...Figure 11.8 5′-end-independent initiation. (Top) Initiation on the type 1 or 2...Figure 11.9 Long-range RNA-RNA interactions aid translation. (A) Activity of t...Figure 11.10 Translation elongation. There are three tRNA-binding sites on the...Figure 11.11 Translation termination. (A) Overview of termination. When a term...Figure 11.12 Ribosome recycling. After peptide release, ABCE1 binds to eRF1 on...Figure 11.13 Juxtaposition of mRNA ends. Shown is a juxtaposition of mRNA ends...Figure 11.14 The diversity of viral translation strategies. Figure 11.15 Polyprotein processing of picornaviruses and flaviviruses. (A) Pr...Figure 11.16 Leaky scanning in the Sendai virus P/C gene. P and C protein open...Figure 11.17 Reinitiation of translation. (A) (Top) Some mRNAs contain one or ...Figure 11.18 Proposed mechanism of StopGo translation. A model for the site-sp...Figure 11.19 Suppression of termination codons of retroviruses and alphaviruses....Figure 11.20 Frameshifting on a retroviral mRNA. The structure of open reading...Figure 11.21 Tandem model for –1 frameshifting. Slippage of the two tRNAs occu...Figure 11.22 Schematic structures of three eIF2α kinases. Y-kinase, pseudokina...Figure 11.23 Model of activation of PKR. PKR is maintained as an inactive mono...Figure 11.24 Effect of eIF2α phosphorylation on catalytic recycling. eIF2-GTP ...Figure 11.25 Some viral proteins and RNAs that counter inactivation of eIF2. V...Figure 11.26 Inhibition of cellular translation in poliovirus-infected HeLa cell...Figure 11.27 Regulation of eIF4F activity. eIF4F is composed of eIF4E, eIF4G, ...Figure 11.28 The mammalian PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling route. The core features of...Figure 11.29 Stress granule assembly and inhibition by viral proteins. When pr...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Localization of viral proteins to the nucleus. The nucleus and maj...Figure 12.2 Localization of viral proteins to the plasma membrane. Viral envel...Figure 12.3 Primary sequence features and covalent modifications of the influenz...Figure 12.4 Maturation of influenza virus HA0 protein during transit along the s...Figure 12.5 The endoplasmic reticulum. (A) The ER of a mammalian cell in cultu...Figure 12.6 Canonical targeting of a nascent protein to the ER membrane. Trans...Figure 12.7 Detection and synthesis of N-linked oligosaccharides. (A) Detectio...Figure 12.8 Integration of folding and glycosylation in the ER. (A) The model ...Figure 12.9 Folding of the two Sindbis virus envelope proteins depends on format...Figure 12.10 Compartments in the secretory pathway. Proteins destined for secr...Figure 12.11 Protein transport from the ER to the Golgi apparatus. (A) Protein...Figure 12.12 Low-pH-induced conformational change and maturation of dengue virus...Figure 12.13 Polarized epithelial cells and neurons. (A) Tight junctions block...Figure 12.14 Axonal transport of herpesviral particles in neurons. (A) At the ...Figure 12.15 Modulation of the unfolded protein response in virus-infected cells...Figure 12.16 Addition of lipids to cytoplasmic proteins. (A) N-terminal myrist...Figure 12.17 Targeting signals of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag protei...Figure 12.18 Targeting signals of matrix proteins of influenza virus (A) and ves...Figure 12.19 Sorting of viral glycoproteins to internal cell membranes. The de...Figure 12.20 Transport of influenza A virus genomic RNA segments from the nucleu...Figure 12.21 Models of the rhabdovirus nucleocapsid, showing the free nucleocaps...Figure 12.22 Cytoplasmic trafficking of retroviral genomes with different nuclea...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Pathways of virus particle assembly and release. The structural un...Figure 13.2 Examination of virus assembly by high-resolution microscopy. Incre...Figure 13.3 Mechanisms of assembly of viral structural units. (A) Assembly fro...Figure 13.4 Radial organization of the Gag polyprotein in immature human immunod...Figure 13.5 Some assembly reactions assisted by cellular chaperones. (A) The E...Figure 13.6 Assembly of poliovirus in the cytoplasm of an infected cell. (A) M...Figure 13.7 Formation of bullet-shaped particles by the vesicular stomatitis vir...Figure 13.8 Assembly of herpes simplex virus 1 nucleocapsids. (A) Assembly beg...Figure 13.9 Assembly of influenza A virus. Assembly proceeds in stepwise fashi...Figure 13.10 Assembly of a retrovirus from polyprotein precursors. The Gag pol...Figure 13.11 Viral DNA-packaging signals. (A) Human adenovirus type 5 (Ad5). T...Figure 13.12 Packaging of herpes simplex virus 1 DNA. (A) Organization of the ...Figure 13.13 Sequences important for the packaging of retroviral genomes. (A) ...Figure 13.14 Organization of ribonucleoproteins in influenza A virus particles. ...Figure 13.15 Interaction of viral proteins responsible for budding at the plasma...Figure 13.16 L domains and release of retroviral particles. (A) Electron micro...Figure 13.17 Functions of the ESCRT pathway in uninfected and virus-infected cel...Figure 13.18 Model of hepatitis B virus envelopment. The pregenome RNA synthes...Figure 13.19 Vaccinia virus assembly and exocytosis. Viral structures observed...Figure 13.20 Movement of vaccinia virus on actin tails. (A) Immunofluorescence...Figure 13.21 Pathway of herpesvirus egress. The mature nucleocapsid assembled ...Figure 13.22 Disruption of the nuclear lamina in herpes simplex virus 1-infected...Figure 13.23 Models for nonlytic release of picornavirus particles. (A) Synthe...Figure 13.24 Morphological rearrangement of retrovirus particles upon proteolyti...Figure 13.25 Model for refolding of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 CA p...Figure 13.26: The maturation of hepatitis B virus particles. (A) Alternative t...Figure 13.27 Direct cell-to-cell spread of virus particles. (A) Human immunode...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 The mammalian PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling route. The core features of ...Figure 14.2 Signaling via PI3K facilitates virus entry. Shown are three exampl...Figure 14.3 Common activation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR relay in virus-infected cells...Figure 14.4 Inhibition of cellular gene expression by viral proteins. (Transcr...Figure 14.5 Decreases in cellular mRNA concentration in virus-infected cells. ...Figure 14.6 Polyribosome profiling. Shown is a comparison of the polyribosome ...Figure 14.7 Reprogramming of promoter-associated transcriptional regulators by a...Figure 14.8 Increased glycolysis in virus-infected cells. (A) Infection by a v...Figure 14.9 Glucose metabolism. Following transport into cells via glucose tra...Figure 14.10 Diversion of acetyl-CoA for fatty acid synthesis in human cytomegal...Figure 14.11 The citric acid cycle and some alterations induced in virus-infecte...Figure 14.12 The electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. The e...Figure 14.13 Storage and mobilization of fatty acids. (A) Fatty acids are tran...Figure 14.14 Mechanisms of stimulation of fatty acid synthesis in human cytomega...Figure 14.15 Increased synthesis and accumulation of fatty acids in hepatitis C ...Figure 14.16 Increased import of fatty acids into poliovirus-infected cells. (...Figure 14.17 Reorganization of nuclei in polyomavirus-infected cells. Murine 3...Figure 14.18 Example of a PML-containing nuclear structure in DNA virus-infected...Figure 14.19 Reorganization of nuclear splicing components in DNA virus-infected...Figure 14.20 Dengue virus cytoplasmic replication and assembly organelles. Hum...Figure 14.21 Hepatitis C virus replication and assembly compartments. (A) The ...Figure 14.22 Cooption of cytoplasmic membranes and lipid droplets in poliovirus-...Figure 14.23 Initial rotavirus assembly on lipid droplets. (A) The kinetics of...

15 AppendixFigure 1 Structure and genome organization of human adenovirus type 5. (A) Vir...Figure 2 Infectious cycle of human adenovirus type 5. (1) The virus attaches t...Figure 3 Structure and genome organization. (A) Virus particle structure. Cryo...Figure 4 Infectious cycle. (1, 2) The virion binds to a cellular receptor, whi...Figure 5 Structure and genome organization of murine coronavirus. (A) Virus pa...Figure 6 Infectious cycle. (1) The virus particle binds to a cell surface rece...Figure 7 Structure and genome organization of the filovirus Zaire ebolavirus. Figure 8 Infectious cycle of ebolavirus. (1) Virus particles bind to a cell su...Figure 9 Structure and genome organization of flaviviruses. (A) Virus particle...Figure 10 Infectious cycle. (1) The virus particle binds to a cell surface rec...Figure 11 Structure and genome organization of orthohepadnaviruses. (A) Virus ...Figure 12 Infectious cycle of hepatitis B virus. (1) The virion attaches to a ...Figure 13 Structure and genome organization of alphaherpesviruses. (A) Virus p...Figure 14 Infectious cycle of herpes simplex virus type 1. (1) Virions bind to...Figure 15 Structure and genome organization of the orthomyxovirus influenza A vi...Figure 16 Infectious cycle of influenza A virus. (1) The virion binds to a sia...Figure 17 Structure and genome organization. (A) Virus particle structure. Ima...Figure 18 Infectious cycle. (1) The virion attaches by binding to specific rec...Figure 19 Structure and genome organization of adenovirus­associated virus (AAV)...Figure 20 Infectious cycle of adenovirus­associated virus (AAV). Heparan sulfa...Figure 21 Structure and genomic organization of poliovirus. (A) Virus particle...Figure 22 Infectious cycle of poliovirus. (1) The virion binds to a cellular r...Figure 23 Structure and genome organization of simian virus 40. (A) Virus part...Figure 24 Infectious cycle of simian virus 40. (1) The virus particle attaches...Figure 25 Structure and genome organization of the poxvirus vaccinia virus. (A...Figure 26 Infectious cycle of vaccinia virus. (1) After receptor binding and f...Figure 27 Structure and genomic organization of an orthoreovirus. (A) Virus pa...Figure 28 Infectious cycle of orthoreovirus. (1) The virion binds to cellular ...Figure 29 Structure and genomic organization. (A) Virus particle structure. Th...Figure 30 Infectious cycle of a retrovirus with a simple genome. (1) The virus...Figure 31 Structure and genomic organization of vesicular stomatitis virus. (A...Figure 32 Infectious cycle. (1) The virion binds to a cellular receptor, such ...Figure 33 Structure and genomic organization. (A) Virus particle structure. Th...Figure 34 Infectious cycle. (1) The virion binds to a cellular receptor and en...

16 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Conquerors of yellow fever. This painting by Dean Cornwell (1939) d...Figure 1.2 The pace of discovery of new infectious agents in the dawn of virol...Figure 1.3 Consequences of the 1918 influenza pandemic. (A) The 1918–19 influe...Figure 1.4 Deaths caused by the yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, 1793. T...Figure 1.5 Spread of West Nile virus in the United States. The maps show the s...Figure 1.6 Fruit bat geographic range in Southeast Asia, and prevalence of Nip...Figure 1.7 Ebola outbreak. Health care workers in areas of the Ebola virus out...Figure 1.8 Zika spread in Brazil. (A) In three short years, from 2014 to 2016,...Figure 1.9 Twitter as a tool in viral epidemiology. Between May 1 and December...Figure 1.10 Seasonal variation in disease caused by three human pathogens in t...

17 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Ectromelia virus infection of mice. Infection begins with a break i...Figure 2.2 The coordinated host response to infection. In healthy individuals,...Figure 2.3 Infection seen as a series of bottlenecks. In the illustrated case,...Figure 2.4 Sites of viral entry into the host. The body is covered with skin, ...Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of the skin. The epidermis consists of a layer of...Figure 2.6 Sites of viral entry in the respiratory tract. (Left) A detailed vi...Figure 2.7 Cilia help to move debris trapped in the mucus of the respiratory t...Figure 2.8 A picture is worth a thousand words. A group of applied mathematici...Figure 2.9 Cellular organization of the small intestine. A simplified view of ...Figure 2.10 Transplacental virus infections. Several viruses, including Zika v...Figure 2.11 Cleavage of influenza virus HA0 by club cell tryptase. Influenza v...Figure 2.12 Polarized release of viruses from cultured epithelial cells visual...Figure 2.13 Entry, dissemination, and shedding of blood-borne viruses. Sho...Figure 2.14 The lymphatic system. Lymphocytes flow from the blood into the lym...Figure 2.15 Generic characteristics of viremia. Passive viremia occurs when th...Figure 2.16 Possible pathways for the spread of infection in nerves. Virus par...Figure 2.17 Outline of the spread of alphaherpesviruses and relationship to di...Figure 2.18 Blood-tissue junction in a capillary, venule, and sinusoid. (L...Figure 2.19 How viruses gain access to the liver. Two layers of hepatocytes ar...Figure 2.20 How viruses travel from blood to tissues with basement membranes. ...Figure 2.21 How viruses gain access to the central nervous system. (Left) A su...Figure 2.22 Mat herpes. An example of a herpesvirus infection on the arms of a...

18 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Integration of intrinsic defense with the innate and adaptive immun...Figure 3.2 Pattern recognition receptors. The four types of pattern recognitio...Figure 3.3 Recognition of viruses by Toll-like receptors in mammalian cells. T...Figure 3.4 Divergence and convergence of signaling pathways in response to a d...Figure 3.5 Detection of intracellular PAMPs by RIG-I. After binding their nucl...Figure 3.6 The cGAS/STING axis in innate immunity. Double-stranded DNA in the ...Figure 3.7 Inhibition of cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptors by selected...Figure 3.8 Apoptosis: programmed cell death. (A) Apoptosis is de fined by seve...Figure 3.9 Pathways to apoptosis. (A) The extrinsic death receptors and their ...Figure 3.10 Viral activators and suppressors of apoptosis. Shown are several v...Figure 3.11 Induction of necroptosis pathways. Necroptosis is initiated by the...Figure 3.12 Autophagy. (A) Viral proteins can either induce (green arrows) or ...Figure 3.13 Epigenetic silencing of DNA. Histone acetylation and deacetylation...Figure 3.14 Interferon increases the number and size of PML bodies. Human fore...Figure 3.15 Tetherin prevents budding of enveloped viruses. Tetherin traps vir...Figure 3.16 Systemic effects of cytokines in inflammation. A localized viral i...Figure 3.17 Interferon receptors. Type I IFNs interact with the heterodimeric ...Figure 3.18 Type I interferon synthesis, secretion, receptor binding, and sign...Figure 3.19 Common signal transduction pathways for IFN-α/β and IL-6....Figure 3.20 The interferon-induced firebreak that restricts viral spread beyon...Figure 3.21 Suppressors of cytokine signaling. In unstimulated cells, SOCS gen...Figure 3.22 Virus-mediated modulation of interferon production and action. Vir...Figure 3.23 Steps in immune cell extravasation into tissues, and the role of c...Figure 3.24 Activation and regulation of the complement system. The complement...Figure 3.25 NK cells distinguish normal, healthy target cells by a two-recepto...Figure 3.26 Virus-encoded mechanisms for modulation of NK-cell activity. (Left...Figure 3.27 Neutrophils produce a “net” to capture extracellular pathogens....Figure 3.28 Critical events during acute virus infection. As discussed in the ...

19 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Development of leukocytes from a common stem cell precursor. All ce...Figure 4.2 The humoral and cell-mediated branches of the adaptive immune syst...Figure 4.3 Simplified representations of CD4 and CD8 coreceptor molecules. Th...Figure 4.4 Differentiation of T helper subsets. T-cell subset differentiation...Figure 4.5 Interleukin-12 skews the T-cell response toward a T_h1 profile. Enga...Figure 4.6 Expansion and contraction of the T-cell response. Soon after infect...Figure 4.7 Generation of receptor diversity. The T- and B-cell receptor allele...Figure 4.8 Dendritic cells provide cytokine signals and packets of protein inf...Figure 4.9 The inflammasome. The best-characterized inflammasome is the NLRP3...Figure 4.10 Inflammation provides integration and synergy with the main compon...Figure 4.11 Lymph node anatomy. (A) Lymph from extracellular spaces in tissue...Figure 4.12 Components of the human lymphatic and mucosal immune systems. (A) Figure 4.13 T-cell surface molecules and ligands. (A) Interaction of a CD4 co...Figure 4.14 Endogenous antigen processing: the pathway for MHC class I peptid...Figure 4.15 Exogenous antigen processing in the antigen-presenting cell: the ...Figure 4.16 The immunological synapse. (A–D) The morphological character...Figure 4.17 CTL lysis. Granzymes induce target cell apoptosis in association ...Figure 4.18 A rogues’ gallery of virus-induced rashes and poxes. Photo ...Figure 4.19 Activation of B cells to produce antibodies. When antigen binds a...Figure 4.20 The structure and properties of an antibody molecule. (A) A schem...Figure 4.21 The specificity, self-limitation, and memory of the antibody resp...Figure 4.22 Secretory antibody, IgA, is critical for antiviral defense at muc...Figure 4.23 How antibodies neutralize virus particles. Possible mechanisms of...Figure 4.24 Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. An example of ADCC...Figure 4.25 Generation of memory-T-cell diversity. The induction and contract...

20 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 General patterns of infection. As originally defined by Fenner and ...Figure 5.2 The course of a typical acute infection. Relative virus reproductio...Figure 5.3 Viral proteins block cell surface MHC class I antigen presentation. Figure 5.4 Persistent infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Mice ...Figure 5.5 Development of hepatocellular carcinoma subsequent to hepatitis C v...Figure 5.6 Worldwide burden of measles virus. (A) The number of annual cases o...Figure 5.7 Infection by measles virus. Course of clinical measles infection an...Figure 5.8 Herpes simplex virus primary infection of sensory and sympathetic g...Figure 5.9 Neurons harboring latent herpes simplex virus often contain hundred...Figure 5.10 Epstein-Barr virus primary and persistent infection. (Left) Primar...Figure 5.11 Two methods for measuring viral virulence. (A) Measurement of surv...Figure 5.12 Attenuation of viral virulence by a point mutation. Mice were inoc...Figure 5.13 Different types of virulence genes. Examples of virulence genes th...Figure 5.14 Summary of PKR-mediated protein shutoff and herpes simplex virus 1...Figure 5.15 Selected viruses that result in immunopathology. The virus types t...Figure 5.16 Deposition of immune complexes in the kidneys, leading to glomerul...Figure 5.17 Model of antibody-dependent enhancement of dengue infection. Monoc...Figure 5.18 Original antigenic sin. When a strong response is made to a viral ...Figure 5.19 Infectious cycle of mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV). This retrovi...Figure 5.20 Measles virus infection of antigen-presenting cells blocks IL-12 p...Figure 5.21 Hendra virus infection restricts nuclear localization of activated...

21 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Stages in the establishment of a cell culture. (A) Mouse or other r...Figure 6.2 Foci formed by avian cells transformed with two strains of Rous sarco...Figure 6.3 The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction pathw...Figure 6.4 Some signaling pathways that promote increases in cell size and mass....Figure 6.5 The phases of a eukaryotic cell cycle. The most obvious phase morph...Figure 6.6 The mammalian cyclin-CDK cell cycle engine. (A) The phases of the c...Figure 6.7 A genetic paradigm for cancer. The pace of the cell cycle can be mo...Figure 6.8 Genome maps of some avian and mammalian transducing retroviruses. T...Figure 6.9 Possible mechanisms for oncogene capture by retroviruses. Capture o...Figure 6.10 DNA virus transforming proteins interact with multiple cellular prot...Figure 6.11 The two mechanistic classes of viral oncogene products. Viral tran...Figure 6.12 Organization and regulation of the c-SRC tyrosine kinase. (A) The ...Figure 6.13 Regulation of cell proliferation and adhesion by SRC. Both c-SRC a...Figure 6.14 Model of paracrine oncogenesis by human herpesvirus 8 gene products....Figure 6.15 Insertional activation of c-myc by avian leukosis viruses. In avia...Figure 6.16 Mechanisms for insertional activation by non-transducing oncogenic r...Figure 6.17 Constitutive signaling by Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein...Figure 6.18 Polyomavirus mT protein, a virus-specific adapter. (A) The mouse p...Figure 6.19 Inhibition of protein phosphatase 2A by simian virus 40 small T anti...Figure 6.20 Passage through the restriction point in mammalian cells. (A) Mito...Figure 6.21 Interactions among viral proteins and the tumor suppressor RB. (A) Figure 6.22 Inactivation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors by viral proteins...Figure 6.23 Signaling pathways that facilitate cell survival. Activation of RA...Figure 6.24 Regulation of the stability and activity of the p53 protein. Under...Figure 6.25 Stabilization of p53 by viral transforming proteins that bind to RB....Figure 6.26 Inactivation of the p53 protein by adenoviral, papillomaviral, and p...Figure 6.27 Production and organization of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type ...Figure 6.28 Cancer hallmarks induced by proteins of viruses associated with huma...

22 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Profiles of successful vaccination campaigns. The number of reporte...Figure 7.2 Irrational fears of the effects of vaccines. Some believed that vac...Figure 7.3 Decline in worldwide measles deaths due to vaccination. Estimated w...Figure 7.4 Passive transfer of antibody from mother to infant. The fraction of...Figure 7.5 Antibody and effector T cells are the basis of protective immunity. ...Figure 7.6 Vaccine thermoses. Development of chambers containing a novel coola...Figure 7.7 How to make vaccines. The basic strategies for vaccine development,...Figure 7.8 Annual timeline for creating an influenza virus vaccine in the United...Figure 7.9 Comparison of the predicted immune responses to inactivated and atten...Figure 7.10 Viruses specific for humans may become attenuated by passage in nonh...Figure 7.11 Replication-competent, attenuated Sabin oral poliovirus vaccine. (...

23 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Current arsenal of antiviral drugs. (A) Antiviral drugs approved fr...Figure 8.2 Knowledge of viral reproduction cycles identifies general targets for...Figure 8.3 Path of drug discovery. The flow of information and action followed...Figure 8.4 Mechanism-based screen for inhibitors of a viral protease. The subs...Figure 8.5 Cell-based screen for a viral protease inhibitor. This cell-based a...Figure 8.6 Combinatorial chemistry and the building-block approach to chemical l...Figure 8.7 Structure of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease with th...Figure 8.8 A descending staircase of drug discovery. Many compounds must be te...Figure 8.9 Valacyclovir (Valtrex), an l-valyl ester derivative of acyclovir with...Figure 8.10 Viral load depends on the dose of antiviral drug. This relationshi...Figure 8.11 Maraviroc, an inhibitor of attachment of human immunodeficiency viru...Figure 8.12 Interaction of amantadine with the transmembrane domain of the influ...Figure 8.13 Many well-known antiviral compounds are nucleoside and nucleotide an...Figure 8.14 Chain termination by antiviral nucleos(t)ide analogs. (A) Acyclovi...Figure 8.15 The hepatitis C virus polyprotein is cleaved by several proteases. ...Figure 8.16 The prodrug sofosbuvir: structure and activation. The success of t...Figure 8.17 Structure of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcripta...Figure 8.18 Two nonnucleoside/nucleotide antiviral compounds. (A) Foscarnet is...Figure 8.19 Strand transfer inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus integ...Figure 8.20 Comparison of one natural cleavage site for the human immunodeficien...Figure 8.21 Structure of the hepatitis C virus protease NS3/4A and with a bound ...Figure 8.22 Steps in the reproduction of human immunodeficiency virus and hepati...Figure 8.23 Decreasing length of treatment regimens for infection with hepatitis...Figure 8.24 Anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) therapy saves millions of li...

24 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 “Superspreader” phages of Escherichia coli. These superspreader pha...Figure 9.2 Application of purified bacteriophage lysins to Gram-positive bacteri...Figure 9.3 Sites of cleavage of the peptidoglycans in bacterial cell walls by ph...Figure 9.4 Properties of cancer cells that can facilitate reproduction of oncoly...Figure 9.5 Clinical trials for gene therapy, 1989 to 2018. The number of clini...Figure 9.6 Retrovirus vectors. Schematics of the proviral genomes of murine le...Figure 9.7 Structures of the T-cell receptor (TCR) and chimeric antigen receptor...Figure 9.8 CAR T cells and cytokine release syndrome. Destruction of tumor cel...Figure 9.9 Formation of episomal vector DNA. The genomes of AAV vectors enter ...Figure 9.10 Dual adenovirus-associated virus vectors to deliver large coding seq...Figure 9.11 Introduction of AAV vector particles into the eye. AAV vectors in ...Figure 9.12 Self-complementary AAV vectors. In these vectors, the complementar...Figure 9.13 Adenovirus vectors. High-capacity adenovirus “gutless” vectors con...Figure 9.14 Poxvirus vectors . To produce recombinant poxviruses, the transgene...Figure 9.15 Adenovirus-associated virus vectors. (A) Map of the genome of wild...Figure 9.16 Genome and mRNAs of vesicular stomatitis virus. (A) Genome organiz...Figure 9.17 Yellow fever virus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of flav...Figure 9.18 Alphavirus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of alphaviruses...Figure 9.19 Newcastle disease virus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of...

25 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Relationship between mutation rate and genome size and nature. Mut...Figure 10.2 Viral quasispecies, population size, bottlenecks, and fitness. Gen...Figure 10.3. Error threshold of an RNA virus. Poliovirus-infected cells were u...Figure 10.4 Muller’s ratchet turns in only one direction. Mutations occur and ...Figure 10.5 Appearance and transmission of distinct serotypes of influenza A vir...Figure 10.6 Origin of life from an RNA world. Multiple lines of scientific evi...Figure 10.7 General scheme of RNA virus evolution based on phylogenomic analyses...Figure 10.8 Phylogeny of reverse transcriptases in retroviruses and pararetrovir...Figure 10.9 Proposed evolution of eukaryotic viruses with single–stranded DNA ge...Figure 10.10. Evolution of eukaryotic viruses with double–stranded DNA genomes ...Figure 10.11 Genetic maps of selected (–) strand RNA viral genomes. Maps of th...Figure 10.12 The genomic and epidemiological dynamics of human influenza A virus...Figure 10.13 RNA virus genomes and evolution. Organization of (+) strand RNA g...Figure 10.14 Host-virus arms race and functional consequences . Schematic repre...Figure 10.15 Integration of nonretroviral sequences into vertebrate genomes. (...

26 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Ancestral origins of human pathogens. Human viruses from 31 genera...Figure 11.2 Emerging viruses in the popular press. Cover of the book Fever!, w...Figure 11.3 Examples of emerging viruses and the factors that led to their emerg...Figure 11.4 General categories of interactions between hosts and viruses. Four...Figure 11.5 Examples of stable and dead-end host-virus relationships. The illu...Figure 11.6 Stable and dead-end relationships in the reproduction cycle of tick-...Figure 11.7 World population growth over the last 2 millennia . (A) The world p...Figure 11.8 Ecological and anthropogenic activities that promote virus emergence...Figure 11.9 Poliovirus in the early 20th century . (A) The emergence of paralyt...Figure 11.10 The transferrin receptor mediates canine and feline parvovirus host...Figure 11.11 Interspecies transmission of influenza viruses. Nearly all influe...Figure 11.12 Major developments in methods for virus discovery drive the identif...

27 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Estimated number of people living with HIV-1 worldwide, 2018. Data...Figure 12.2 Evolution of primate lentiviruses. (A) Zoonotic transmission of pr...Figure 12.3 Organization of HIV-1 (A) and HIV-2 proviral DNA (B). The colored ...Figure 12.4 Mechanisms of Tat and Rev function in the HIV-1 reproduction cycle...Figure 12.5 Adapter functions of HIV-1 accessory proteins. The major targets (...Figure 12.6 Mechanism of action of APOBEC3G and degradation by Vif. (Top left)...Figure 12.7 Tetherin traps virions on the cell surface. (A) HIV-1 virus partic...Figure 12.8 HIV-1 CA lattice recognition by TRIM5α. (A) Schematic depicti...Figure 12.9 HIV-1 envelope and receptors. (A) Structure of gp120 trimer (modif...Figure 12.10 HIV-1 dissemination in the body. The first cells productively inf...Figure 12.11 Modes of transmission vary among geographical locations. Distribu...Figure 12.12 Progression of HIV-1 infection. Representative changes in HIV-1 v...Figure 12.13 Effects of HIV-1 infection on the intestinal mucosa. The intestin...Figure 12.14 Effects of HIV-1 infection on lymphoid tissue. (Top) Changes in l...Figure 12.15 Comparison of HIV-1 envelope diversity to that of influenza. Evol...Figure 12.16 Summary of kinetics of HIV-1 reproduction in the body. The percen...Figure 12.17 Clonal expansion of latently infected, central memory CD4+ T cell...Figure 12.18 Antibody evolution against the HIV-1 envelope. (A) Representative...Figure 12.19 Kaposi’s sarcoma in a young man infected with HIV-1. The di...Figure 12.20 Induction of cancers in HIV-1-infected individuals. Infection of ...Figure 12.21 The multifaceted approach to prevention of infection with HIV-1. ...

28 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Structure of two types of viroid. (A) Model of the potato spindle ...Figure 13.2 Replication of two different types of viroid in plants. (Top) Repl...Figure 13.3 Vertical and horizontal transmission of viroids in plants via pollen...Figure 13.4 Properties of three classes of satellite RNAs. Schematic of the RN...Figure 13.5 Replication of satellite RNA. Satellite RNA enters the plant cell ...Figure 13.6 Genome and virus particle of hepatitis delta virus. (A) Schematic ...Figure 13.7 Three epidemics of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. The graphs show the ...Figure 13.8 The conversion of nonpathogenic, α–helix–rich PrPC protein to the β–...Figure 13.9 Three mechanisms for the development of human transmissible spongifo...Figure 13.10 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle and variant Creutzfeldt–...Figure 13.11 Chronic wasting disease in North America. Distribution of cases o...

29 AppendixFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 9Figure 10Figure 11Figure 12Figure 13Figure 14Figure 15Figure 16Figure 17Figure 18Figure 19Figure 20Figure 21Figure 22Figure 23Figure 24Figure 25Figure 26Figure 27Figure 28Figure 29