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FRUIT & VEGETABLES

FRESH FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

Thanks to the miracles of modern science and improvements in transport, most fruit and vegetables are available throughout the year. However, in the cause of economy and being environmentally friendly, it is far better to buy your fruit and veg from local markets or shops that you know source produce grown within an acceptable distance or, if you can, grow your own. Also, make the most of farm shops and pick-your-own farms. Another good local source to keep your eyes open for are glut fruits and vegetables, which are offered by gardeners rather than see them go to waste. These are often excellent buys or they may even give them away – try a bit of bartering!

If you’ve chosen a recipe that includes exotic fruits that aren’t grown in this country, then do buy them in their natural season and from as close by as possible. Always wash them well to ensure that any wax or preservative coating is removed.

For detailed information on specific types of fruit and veg, refer to the recipe section.

STORECUPBOARD FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

Apart from being able to treat your family to pure, unadulterated and imaginative preserves, the reason for making these good things is to take advantage of fruit and vegetables when they are fresh, in season and when they should be correspondingly cheaper. During the winter months this is not always an option, therefore a little cheating may be necessary…

TINNED FRUIT AND VEG

These make exceptionally good preserves. Measure off the juice and use it with, or substituted for, the liquid in the recipe. If it is sweetened, reduce the sugar by 1 tablespoonful per tin. Gooseberries, apricots, plums, pineapple and tomatoes are the most successful. Tinned sweetcorn can be used in relish to cheer up the ubiquitous hamburger.

FROZEN FRUIT

Look for bargains at your local pick-your-own farm shop (many have freezers full of fruit) or check out your local supermarket for offers – frozen fruit, particularly berries, can sometimes be cheaper than fresh.

DRIED FRUIT AND VEG

Dried fruits are essential for chutneys and pickles, but there are a host of jam and conserve recipes that make good use of dried fruit during the winter months. Dried tomatoes and mushrooms can be used in pickles and chutneys.

FRUIT JUICES

Good-quality, preservative-free, pure fruit juice can be a useful standby for jellies and to add to other fruit.

SUGAR

White sugar is produced either from sugar cane grown in the tropical regions of the world or from sugar beet, which is produced in more temperate climates. Although there is no difference between the two, my preference has always been for cane sugar.

Sugar, like honey, wine and spices, was used in early kitchens in order to disguise, or improve upon, mediocre and stale food and was considered to be a costly and exotic spice. Only the well-to-do and wealthy in Britain could afford to use sugar as a preservative and it took hundreds of years for it to become the everyday commodity that it is now. Sugar acts as a preservative only when it is used in conjunction with a pectin and/or acid.

Jams and jellies with an inadequate amount of sugar will inevitably give poor results. You may have to over-boil the jam to compensate for the lack of sugar and this will not only give a bad colour and taste, but the preserve will not thicken or set properly. The preserve will probably not keep and it may not be entirely fermented (an easily recognisable condition in which the preserve tastes like wine); or it may taste sour or grow an unappetising mould. Jams and jellies with too much sugar will be oversweet and lacking in flavour. They will also crystallise during cooking or whilst the preserve is being stored.

The proportions of sugar to fruit are very important and recipes should be followed in this respect, but for those who would like to go it alone, here are some rough guidelines, but remember that the fruit must always be fresh and unbruised (for the pectin content of different fruits):

1kg high-pectin fruit requires up to 1.25kg sugar

1kg medium-pectin fruit requires 1kg sugar

1kg low-pectin fruit requires approximately 800g sugar

Certain important steps to be taken with sugar will ensure a clear, bright jelly or jam with a good set and, hopefully, no problems afterwards. Always warm the sugar in a heatproof dish in a very low oven (70°C/gas mark ¼) for 10 minutes before adding it to the pan of fruit or juice; this will not only keep the colour good, but also help the sugar to dissolve more rapidly. The sugar must be thoroughly stirred in and dissolved before the preserve is brought to the boil – if you do not do this, you will find that you have crystals forming in the jam or, worse still, it will sink to the bottom of the pan, stick and burn and there really is no salvaging that little error! This applies to chutneys, pickles and sauces as well as to sweet preserves.

Do not boil for longer than you have to once the sugar has been added. Unless stated otherwise, the boiling should be as rapid as possible to prevent the fruit skins hardening in reaction to the sugar and to keep a good, bright colour and fresh flavour.

Do not stir too much or leave the spoon in the pan once the sugar has been added and brought to the boil – it may make it more difficult to achieve a set. Take care not to boil past the point of setting – it’s worth remembering to remove the pan from the heat as you test for a set, otherwise it may well just bubble past the setting point whilst your back is turned.

Lots of different types of sugars are available. Here are the advantages, or otherwise, of each:

PRESERVING SUGAR

A white sugar that has larger crystals than granulated sugar and creates less ‘scum’ (for want of a better word). It therefore requires less skimming and ensures a brighter, clearer jam or jelly, although it would be wasted on chutneys.

JAM SUGAR

A white sugar that has added pectin and is very useful for making preserves from fruit with a low pectin content. Strawberries, rhubarb and raspberries can be very temperamental, as can plums and apricots, and dried fruit certainly needs extra help. Jam sugar is not necessary when making preserves other than jams or jellies.

WHITE OR GOLDEN GRANULATED SUGAR

White granulated sugar is most commonly used in preserving as it has no colour or distinctive taste. It is cheaper than preserving and jam sugar, but does not dissolve so easily and often forms a scum, which will impair the appearance of jams and jellies, although not the taste. If this happens skim the scum off before potting. Golden granulated sugar gives a slightly mellower flavour and, when used in light-coloured preserves, a richer colour. However, golden granulated sugar is more expensive than white, and I can see no real advantage in using it.

WHITE CASTER SUGAR

This is more expensive than granulated sugar, but is necessary in some exotic recipes and for making curds. If you do not have caster sugar, then whizz some granulated sugar around in a blender for a second or two.

LIGHT BROWN SUGAR, SOFT BROWN SUGAR AND DEMERARA SUGAR

These are made from sugar cane and are less refined than white sugar. All of these sugars can be used in preserves, but as they do not usually form a set when used alone, they should be used in conjunction with white sugar. Whilst many people believe that using brown sugar in their preserves has a beneficial effect, I find that it impairs a satisfactory set, therefore it is better used in those preserves in which a firm set is not essential. When using high-pectin fruit such as apples, gooseberries and damsons, a reasonable set may be achieved by substituting half or a quarter of the white sugar for brown, but low-pectin fruit such as apricots, peaches and strawberries will not achieve a firm set without the use of additional pectin, and it is as well to remember that brown sugars will alter both the colour and the taste of the preserve, so it is best to use them with strong, dark fruit, for example damsons and plums.

Light brown, soft brown and Demerara sugars can give additional colour and taste to fruit cheeses, chutneys (where they can be used very satisfactorily in conjunction with brown malt vinegar), relishes and sauces. Once again, as in all preserves, do make sure that the sugar is dissolved before bringing to the boil.

SOFT DARK BROWN SUGAR, MUSCOVADO, MOLASSES AND BARBADOS SUGAR

Very dark, rich sugars that will flavour and colour quite strongly. Unless a recipe specifically advocates the use of any of these sugars, they should only be used in chutneys and sauces.

ICING SUGAR

Unsuitable for use in preserving.

All of the following can be substituted, in part, for sugar:

GOLDEN SYRUP

A refined by-product of white sugar, which gives a lovely taste to preserves and a golden colour to pickles. It also fractionally changes the consistency. Golden syrup is best used by substituting a quarter of the sugar for syrup, preferably in preserves made from high-pectin fruit such as apples or gooseberries, where it adds a golden colour. The same proportions can be used when making syrups for spiced and alcoholic fruit. Always warm the tin before measuring and pouring – it makes life so much easier.

BLACK TREACLE

Thick, dark brown supremely sticky stuff. Used only sparingly to give a strong flavour and dark colour. Very few jams use treacle in the ingredients, but it is occasionally useful in chutneys, etc.

CORN AND MAPLE SYRUP

These are most popular as accompaniments to waffles, pancakes and fritters, but can also be used in preserves. Substitute a quarter to half of the white sugar for syrup and remember that both dark corn syrup and maple syrup colour quite distinctively and that maple syrup has a strong taste.

HONEY

Absolutely delicious in preserves. It is much sweeter than sugar and has a unique ‘wild quality’ that it imparts to any preserve in which it is used. Mixed blossom honey is the most economical choice, but there are some wonderfully flavoured pure blossom honeys: clover, eucalyptus, rosemary, orange blossom, heather and lime. Do be careful to blend blossom honey carefully with the fruit in the preserves because their tastes are quite distinctive. I would not recommend using chestnut blossom honey in preserves as it is very overwhelming. I like to use the more delicately flavoured honey for use in fruit curds, where it can transform the flavour. Honey added to jam makes it a subtly different preserve, but it will not set if used alone, therefore substitute a quarter to half of the sugar for honey depending on the fruit or flowers used and the consistency of the set preferred.

MOLASSES

Very thick and black and not suitable for use in home preserving.

SALT

Salt is particularly important in the making of chutneys and pickles for many reasons. Strong brine acts as a preservative and prevents the process of discolouration if used with care. Salt sprinkled on such vegetables as cucumbers rids them of excess moisture and helps to soften hard skin. Salt also removes bitter juices from fruit and vegetables such as aubergines and prevents juices from leaching into the vinegar. Salt gives a unique pungency to lemons and limes, which is totally unlike their natural flavour; it also combines with herbs and spices to give magical effects from the most basic ingredients.

Some recipes require a lot of salt and some very little, and I would suggest that you stick to the quantities given. Remember, that when reducing pulps, purées and pastes, the salt flavour will become more concentrated.

Never neglect the addition of salt in your recipes, unless you are on a salt-free diet, in which case it is worth investigating salt substitutes. Salt brings out the flavour in food that might otherwise be dull and lifeless. This strange property is why fortunes have been made, and the prosperity of nations founded, upon salt – you do not realise how vital it is until you are deprived of it, and then a terrible craving sets in! Apart from which, it was at one time the only method of preserving foodstuffs – from fish and meat to fruit and vegetables.

Salt should be kept in non-porous stoneware jars or wooden boxes and a few grains of rice added to ensure that it stays dry and free-flowing – especially if you keep salt near the cooker. Damp salt becomes concentrated and can cause mayhem for the careful cook.

Several varieties of salts are available:

TABLE SALT

The most widely used type, table salt contains magnesium carbonate to give it free running properties, but I feel that this makes it unsuitable for clear pickles and bottling as it may give a cloudy result.

ROCK SALT

A crystal form of salt, this is the next best thing to block salt, which was traditionally widely used in preserving but is now difficult to obtain.

BAY SALT, SEA SALT OR GROS SEL

These are crystals of sea water formed by evaporation under natural or artificial heat. This is the salt that I find most satisfactory for nearly all preserving.

MALDON SALT

Flat flakes of salt naturally produced in Maldon in Essex. Maldon salt is the very best, but also the most expensive.

FLAVOURED SALT

Ready-made celery salt, garlic salt and onion salt are all popular kitchen condiments and each adds their own distinctive flavour to a wide variety of dishes. But how about making your own herb salts? Take a bunch of fresh mixed herbs, choosing a selection that is suitable for a specific purpose. For example, use the more delicate herbs like chervil and tarragon in creamy sauces; robust herbs like marjoram and sage will go well with meat and fish; whilst strong, aromatic herbs such as oregano and basil are the most suitable for pizzas and cheese dishes. Make sure that the herbs are freshly picked, clean and dry and chop them finely. Either put them into a liquidiser or mix very thoroughly by hand in a bowl or pestle and mortar with three-quarters of a cup of an additive-free salt. Spread the mixture out thinly on a baking tray and leave overnight in the oven at a very low temperature (50–70°C/gas mark ¼), with the door ajar. Store in an airtight container – the herb salt will last indefinitely, but all herbs lose their flavour over time.

VINEGAR

An essential ingredient in a wide variety of pickles, chutneys and relishes, not only to add colour and flavour, but also to prevent the growth of bacteria and so extend the keeping qualities of the finished preserve.

Choosing the right vinegar can be a daunting prospect as the range available at supermarkets is ever-increasing, so here’s a guide to the different types:

MALT VINEGAR

Made from a fermentation of malt, it is available as either brown (coloured with caramel) or white (distilled). This vinegar is the one that most home preservers favour, for it is economical, can be purchased in large quantities from 1–5 litres and is easily available. However, do make sure that the vinegar you purchase is true malt vinegar. Although malt vinegar is harsh and uncompromising, it is quite suitable for more robust pickles, chutneys and sauces where refined flavours would be lost. White malt vinegar is usually used in conjunction with white sugar, where a light, clear or decorative appearance is necessary, for example artichoke pickles. Small green tomatoes, red chillies, shallot or pickling onions, pieces of lemon and so on will show to better advantage if white vinegar is used.

WINE VINEGAR

This was originally made from wine in Orléans, France, where great casks of stored wine suffered from the accidental inclusion of air, thus becoming disastrously soured over a period of time. Eventually, the value of this unpalatable wine was discovered, financial disaster was averted and a more scientific approach was worked out for making Orléans wine vinegar. Many companies now make less expensive wine vinegar by modern methods. Wine vinegar is better than malt vinegar in delicate pickles (if there is such a thing!) but do not be misled into thinking that because it has a more fragrant flavour it must be better for pickles, for this is not necessarily so. Wine vinegar has a different effect on some combinations of fruit, vegetables, spices, etc, and may result in a sour note. One of the best uses it may be put to is in herb vinegars.

CIDER VINEGAR

This is produced in much the same way as wine vinegar. It can vary enormously in quality and price and the flavour can be pleasant and mellow. It is much more useful in nearly all preserves than wine vinegar and is, if you can afford it, a better substitute for malt vinegar, especially if you favour natural foods. If you run out of cider vinegar in an emergency, half white malt vinegar and half dry cider will give you a reasonable result and this is the mixture that I frequently use in preserves that are well cooked. Cider vinegar is excellent for making flower, fruit and herb vinegars, although it does have a clear golden colour that you may consider to be a disadvantage.

BALSAMIC AND SHERRY VINEGARS

Powerful, dark vinegars most usually added in small quantities to sauces, dressings and other dishes. Too strong to use in pickling – and the cost would be prohibitive – however, in conjunction with malt vinegar, they make a well-flavoured pickling vinegar for shallots and mushrooms. A good slug of it will also give a kick to red tomato chutneys and sauces.

SPICED OR PICKLING VINEGARS

Many recipes call for this ready-spiced vinegar and it is handy to make it in large quantities, which can save a lot of hassle later on. Most of them are made from malt vinegar, although occasionally a recipe may specify a spiced wine or cider vinegar. The method of making spiced vinegar is simple: pickling spices are boiled together with vinegar in a stainless steel pan, the pan is removed from the heat, covered and left to get cold. It can then either be strained before using or the whole spices added to the pickle, but not to a chutney. If it is to be kept, it should be poured into a suitable container and sealed with a non-metal lid. The spices added to the vinegar will make it much stronger if you don’t strain it. A wide selection of different spiced vinegars, both mild and fiery, are included throughout this book.

FLAVOURED VINEGARS

There are many recipes for malt vinegars flavoured with garlic, onion, shallot and horseradish; white malt vinegar flavoured with cucumber; wine vinegar with tiny red chillies or green peppercorns added to the bottle; and, of course, the vinegars left over from such goodies as pickled artichokes or onions. All of these are of inestimable value in the kitchen. A few drops added to salad dressings, marinades, stuffing, dips, chutneys and pickles all give your own special, unique touch and, of course, are very economical and will give a zing to the most everyday food.

HERB VINEGARS

Most of these are usually made with white malt, red or white wine or cider vinegar, and there are many recipes in this book for achieving these delightful and subtle concoctions. Use attractive bottles for a never-ending supply of unusual and inexpensive presents, which will give great pleasure to you and the recipient. The most exciting thing about making herb vinegars is the experimenting. Do not just take the recipes that I have given, try mixing and blending your own favourites. How about several coriander seeds with lemon thyme for a spicy vinegar or a few cloves or a blade of mace in a tarragon vinegar? This makes a smashing dressing for chicken salad. The therapeutic effects of wandering around the garden selecting your herbs and then going through the leisurely business of preparing the vinegar and waiting for it to mature are very good for the soul as well as the palate.

Although there are more specific recipes, there is a fairly standard method of making herb vinegars. Use only small quantities of herbs to start with and try experimenting with your favourites, adding a few whole spices if the mood takes you. If it is difficult to obtain fresh herbs, then dried herbs will still make a very palatable vinegar. Generally speaking, half the weight of dried herbs to fresh is sufficient, but remember when using dried herbs to strain the vinegar through a muslin cloth before decanting otherwise it will be ‘bitty’. Make sure that you pick your herbs before they flower and early in the morning whilst their oils are still fresh; also, that they are clean and dry – but do not wash them. Bruise them well and pack into a sterilised heatproof jar. Bring a pan of white vinegar to the boil and then pour it over the herbs whilst it is hot, but not boiling, then seal and leave to infuse for 14 days, shaking every day. Strain and add a fresh whole leaf or a sprightly sprig to a sterilised bottle before adding the vinegar. Seal with corks.

FLOWER VINEGARS

If making herb vinegars is soothing, imagine the delightful pleasures in store in making fragrant vinegars, perfumed and colourful with names from an Elizabethan garden – gillyflowers, clove carnation, rose, lavender and marigold. White vinegars are used to make these ancient lovelies as the vinegar becomes transformed by the colour of the petals. One word of warning though: do not use flowers grown from a corm or bulb base unless you are absolutely sure that they are not harmful. It is also good common sense to check on any flower that you use to make sure it is not one of the nasties.

FRUIT VINEGARS

More old-fashioned brews concocted by good wives of another era and some of my favourites. Again, use white malt, cider or red or white wine vinegar and usually soft fruit: blackberries, raspberries, mulberries or blackcurrants. The results can be put not only to culinary use, but to medicinal use as well. With hot water and honey added if necessary, children will find them a soothing and novel antidote for minor snuffles and sore throats. Inevitably the originality is half the cure!

SPICES & FLAVOURINGS

Without a pinch of spice or a grating of ginger, many preserves would simply not be as moreish and mouthwatering. The skilful blending of spices, seasonings or herbs in varying proportions will enhance the other ingredients and help transform them into all-time favourites.

Starting with flavouring: a good, simple example of this is onion-flavoured vinegar, where the onion is the principal and vinegar the vehicle. Garlic and tomato chutney is another more complex example: garlic will be the predominant flavour and the tomato the substance for carrying that flavour, but in either case, one will not exist without the other. Without spices or seasonings, however, the recipe will be at best very ordinary, at worst woefully unpalatable. Strange combinations can have amazing and agreeable results, for example lemon, garlic and horseradish; orange and coriander; rhubarb and vanilla; prunes and cloves; gooseberry and elderflower; ginger and cardamom. The real truth of a seasoning is that its presence should not be noticeable as a single unit, but only as a contribution to the whole, however subtle or sly the change to the main ingredients.

There are some important points to bear in mind when using spices in preserve making. Where possible, freshly grind your own spices as you need them, particularly peppercorns and allspice and freshly grated nutmeg. It is usually preferable to tie whole spices together in a muslin bag for all preserves – jams, chutneys, pickles, relishes, etc. – unless the recipe states otherwise.

When you have to use commercially ground spices, make sure that they are really fresh, otherwise you will gain nothing from them. So buy in small quantities and keep in dark, air-tight jars. Throw away old spices – they are of no use to you. Ground spices are acceptable in jams and chutneys, but should never be used in clear preserves, bottling, clear pickles, vinegars or oils, nor added to jellies after they have been drained through a muslin. The reason for this is quite simple – the taste will not be impaired, but the result will be as murky as a fish pond and, in some cases, a thick sediment will form at the bottom of the jar or bottle, which will look very nasty indeed. You may know that the product is good, but others will view it with grave suspicion.

Here’s a guide to the invaluable spices used in jam, chutney and pickle making:

ALLSPICE

The dried brown berry of Pimenta dioica, which grows in tropical America and the West Indies. Similar in appearance to, but smoother than, a peppercorn and tasting of cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon – hence the name. It is also known as Jamaica pepper. This is a particularly useful flavouring for all preserves, pickles and chutneys. Also used in marinades and cakes.

CARDAMOM

True cardamom is either from Elettaria cardamomum or Amomum cardamomum, which are both members of the ginger family. The tiny black-brown seeds are contained within a creamy green pod and the flavour and smell is distinctly that of eucalyptus – pleasantly aromatic if you like it, but distasteful if you do not. Used mainly in curry powders, it combines well with ginger, coffee and many spices. It is a popular spice in the Middle and Far East, Germany and the Nordic countries. Although not frequently made the most of, cardamom is a very useful spice in pickling, where the taste has been likened to that of a cross between juniper and lime. Most recipes require that you scrape the small seeds from the pods.

CINNAMON

A very valuable spice in preserving. Use either the stick, which is in reality the outer bark of a tree, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, which curls into those little scrolls naturally as it dries, or use a ground spice and try to buy a good brand that has not been adulterated with inferior substitutes. Cinnamon is imported mainly from Sri Lanka.

CLOVES

The dried flower buds of Caryophyllus aromatica. The name derives from the French for nail, clou, due to the nail-like appearance of the buds. Cloves are tremendously important in preserving, for they are compatible with a vast array of fruit, vegetables, herbs and spices. Prunes, plums, walnuts, apples, oranges, pears and onions can all be pierced with a clove before pickling, spicing or crystallising. Most spice mixtures contain cloves, either ground or whole.

GINGER

An important and endlessly useful spice, ginger is completely universal, being used in everything from flavouring cakes to spicing fish. Coming originally from south China, ginger is the root of Zingiber officinale. The fresh root, also known as green ginger, when grated or pounded has a much better flavour than dried root and powdered ginger. Dried ginger goes into all pickling spices and is widely available. Powdered and dried ginger comes from Jamaica and West Africa and neither of them keep their unique taste well. Ginger is used an enormous amount in making preserves and you should always remember that you will only get the best out of your spices if they are fresh. To keep green ginger fresh, put it into a small, clean, dry jar and cover with dry sherry. If the jar is well sealed, this should keep for a long time – the first sign of it deteriorating will be a slight mould.

MACE

The delicate, golden filigree blades of mace are the dried aril or net surrounding the nutmeg, which in turn is the stone of the peach-like fruit Myristica fragrans. Blade and ground mace are both expensive, but they provide a distinctive taste which is necessary to many pickles.

NUTMEG

This is the stone or nut of the Myristica fragrans fruit. The nut is very hard and can be grated easily to a fine powder using a nutmeg grater. Small graters were once made for this specific purpose, so great was the vogue enjoyed by the nutmeg. It is an essential spice in many sweet pickles, where although it does not predominate, it would certainly be missed if left out. Nutmeg is more versatile than, and can be substituted for, mace. Commercially ground nutmeg can be useful, but it goes stale very quickly and lacks much of the true flavour.

PEPPERCORNS

Black, white, pink and green are all the same berry of Piper nigrum, the pepper vine from the Malayan and south Indian forests, Burma and Assam, which produces long, pendulous spikes of small berries, which turn from green to red on ripening. The black peppercorn is the berry picked just as it is beginning to ripen. It is then dried slowly, becoming wrinkled and dark. The outer skin is the aromatic part of the corn. The white peppercorn is the berry when it is allowed to ripen completely and then dried out. An inferior version uses the inside of the black peppercorn after the outer skin has been soaked off, leaving the small, smooth, white centre. Both white and black pepper are best when freshly ground in a peppermill. The black is hot, spicy and aromatic, the white has more of a ‘peppery’ quality. Green peppercorns are the fresh green berries picked before they are ripe, whilst pink peppercorns are picked when ripe, but not dried, and these are most often packed into jars or tins. Deliciously hot, juicy and soft, pink and green peppercorns, are used most frequently in pâtés and sausages and are really superb in some pickles. No kitchen should be without black and white peppercorns and freshly ground pepper is the premier spice which can be used with flair and imagination in both sweet and savoury dishes. One friend of mine adds several black peppercorns to bottled pears, they discolour a little but certainly add something special. Whole black and white peppercorns are both included in pickling spice.

SAFFRON

The dried pistils of Crocus sativus or autumn crocus, which is native to Asia. An integral part of paella, risotto and bouillabaisse, it is the world’s most expensive spice. It is rarely used in preserving as the unique, subtle flavour would be wasted, however, when it is called upon to add colour, dried marigold petals are an excellent substitute.

TURMERIC

A bright yellow spice which is mildly pungent, warm and aromatic. An important ingredient in all curry powders and also the most important addition to mustard pickles and piccalillis, it gives no heat but an agreeable spiciness and, of course, the hectic colour. Always buy good-quality turmeric and use it quickly. Like ginger, turmeric is the dried root of a plant – in this case Curcuma longa. It is readily available, ground to a fine powder.

VANILLA

The dried seed pod of a Mexican orchid, Vanilla planifolia, now grown commercially. Vanilla pods have the appearance of slim, black and sticky-looking pencils, covered in a rime of frost, which is characteristic of the best vanilla pods. Vanilla has many sweet and delicious uses from flavouring milk, ice cream, chocolate and sugar to adding a distinctive flavour to a range of desserts. A vanilla pod can be used time and time again if it is carefully dried and put away in an air-tight jar or stored in a jar of caster sugar so, although it is not cheap, it is an investment. Vanilla’s principal uses in preserving are in the syrups for bottled fruits, whole fruit preserves and in jam, although in the latter it is probably more sensible to use a vanilla extract, but do make sure that it is a good one. Don’t be mistaken and use vanilla essence – this is a far inferior product and is either a synthetic reproduction or the result of broken pods being soaked in alcohol.

PECTIN

This soluble gum-like carbohydrate is the essential setting agent in jams and jellies. It forms naturally in fruit from pectose during ripening or in fruit and fruit juice by heating. Without pectin, your jam will be a sweet stew and your jelly a syrup. The more pectin that there is in fruit, the more sugar, and sometimes water, you can use, hence more jam. Therefore, it follows that high-pectin fruits like apples are frequently used with those that have a medium or low pectin content in order to make a jam that will set. For example apple and blackberry or apple and strawberry.

Fruits vary in the amount of pectin they contain, so the following is a general guide:

High-pectin fruit: apples, oranges and all citrus fruit, gooseberries, plums, greengages, damsons, quince, all currant fruit, pineapple.

Medium-pectin fruit: pears, apricots, raspberries, blackberries, rhubarb, cherries.

Low-pectin-fruit: strawberries, peaches, nectarines, grapes.

Some fruit, although looking juicy and ripe and coming into the category of high-pectin fruit, will curiously refuse to set. This can be caused by weather conditions – if the fruit has not had much sun, it will not be as high in pectin as expected. Paradoxically, in a very rainy season, plums will swell up deliciously, but will be sadly lacking in flavour and in setting properties. Fruit that is overripe will also lack pectin. These things rarely happen, but if in doubt there is a pectin test you can resort to, although I have to say that it is only worth the hassle if you have a lot of one fruit to use.

TESTING FOR PECTIN

Take a small amount of fruit and proceed as if you were making a jam. Before you reach the sugar stage, take 1 teaspoon of the cooked fruit juice from the pan, cool it in a heatproof glass-lidded jar and add 3 teaspoons methylated spirits. Secure the lid in place and shake the jar. If the result is a nice jelly-like clot, that means that there is a high-pectin content. Small, broken clots mean a medium pectin content and if there are no clots, then there is a poor pectin content and you will have to resort to more devious methods. Do keep the methylated spirit away from utensils, ingredients and naked flames. When making jelly, the pectin content in the fruit juice will be reduced if the juice has been left to drain too long before using and the result will be syrupy.

HOMEMADE PECTIN EXTRACT

This can be obtained from apples (windfalls are the best – there is no point in using expensive, commercially produced apples), redcurrants or gooseberries and it is extremely useful to have as a standby. Measure out your chosen fruit and cold water in the proportions of 1kg fruit to 1 litre water. Wash the fruit making sure that any spoilt pieces are cut away or discarded. Cut the apples into chunks. Put the fruit into a pan with the water, boil together for 30 minutes, pulping and mashing well as you go. Turn into a clean jelly bag and leave to drain right through without prodding. Either use the resulting extract immediately or return it to the clean pan and bring just to the boil. Remove from the heat and pot into small, hot, dry preserving jars. Sterilise for 1–5 minutes To Sterilise Filled Jars – the bigger the jar, the longer the process. I tend to keep my pectin extract in the fridge.

COMMERCIAL PECTIN

Can be used to improve upon, or gain, a set when using medium-or low-pectin fruit. It can also be used to make a more economical jam from all fruit and for making freezer jams. There are specific recipes for these within this book. Pectin additive in crystal form is available in sachets containing 13g pectin each. Use 1 sachet per 800g low-pectin fruit, such as strawberries, and 1kg granulated sugar. The pectin is added with the sugar when the fruit is sufficiently cooked.

CHECKING FOR SETTING POINT

This is a handy check for a set: drop a little boiling jam on to a very cold plate and, after a few seconds, you should be able to tilt the plate without the jam or jelly running. Once you become experienced at making jams, you will recognise the almost magical, glistening translucence of a jam at setting point. The setting point for jelly can be judged by the way in which it will drip very slowly from the spoon. In fact, it almost appears to slowly fold – not run.

OIL

Oil is rarely used in preserving except as an air-tight, flavourless seal for purées and pastes and as a suspension for herbs. In the Middle East, however, delicious locally grown lemons, limes, aubergines and peppers are preserved in oil, whilst from Italy comes a most spectacular pickle called Mostarda di Frutta, which uses mustard seed oil to achieve the unique flavour of this traditional preserve.

In many recipes oil acts as a softening agent instead of salt. The cheapest and best oils to use in any preserve are sunflower and rapeseed oil as they are colourless with no discernible taste. Although safflower oil is colourless and flavourless, it is expensive and there would be little point in using the unusual and expensive nut and seed oils in recipes where their gentle flavours might be swamped. Fine olive oil is rich and fruity, fully redolent of the Mediterranean regions from which it comes, but unfortunately its unique flavour does mask all but the most robust ingredients, such as garlic and tomatoes.

There are plenty of delightful herb oils – thyme, marjoram, rosemary, etc. – which have many uses from basting meat and fish to making subtle and delicate salad dressings. One of the very finest mixed herb oils is one that I have come across in France and it serves as a good example for making your own choices, but, do not forget, have fun with your imagination and make something really different.

To make your own flavoured oil, take a selection of fresh dry herbs on small branches (pick your own and dry them gently in the oven), balancing a mixture suitable for a definite purpose, for example thyme, rosemary, basil, fennel and bay make a pleasant basting oil for meat. Add a sliver of garlic, several green peppercorns and a little sea salt for a more aromatic mixture. For a hotter mixture, tiny red chillies can be added. Arrange these ingredients in an attractive sterilised jar and fill up with a flavourless fine oil. Seal and leave on a sunny windowsill for at least 4 weeks before using.

UTENSILS & EQUIPMENT

These may be essential or non-essential, but they are designed to make your life easier and to ensure that cooking becomes a pleasure rather than a chore. They are also designed to prevent mistakes and accidents. Assemble all your equipment before you start otherwise you may find that the jam has burnt whilst you search for that essential wooden spoon.

GENERAL EQUIPMENT

You don’t need much specialist equipment for home preserving, but this list covers the basics – many of which you will have already.

GOOD LARGE SCALES OR WEIGHING MACHINE

 Measuring jug with dry and liquid measures and preferably made of rigid polythene or heatproof glass. Also to be used for filling the jars. If you use stainless steel or enamel, you will find that the handles may get very hot.

 selection of china, heatproof glass or rigid polythene basins or bowls, including several large ones. Do not leave juice to drip into, or fruit or vegetables to stand overnight in, metal basins.

 Several large flat china dishes.

 Wooden spoons: one long handled for stirring volcanic mixtures; one wide and deep for scooping; one flat and short for sieving; one ordinary one for general bashing about.

 Perforated or slotted spoons, ideally wooden. If you use metal, make sure you do not leave it to stand in the pan as it will leave an aftertaste.

 Sharp vegetable knife and a chopping knife.

 Vegetable peeler and corer.

 A potato masher, preferably wooden, for pulping.

 A jelly bag or large squares of clean muslin and a spare piece to cut up for spice bags. Jelly bags are used to contain fruit pulp, which is then allowed to drain into a bowl in order that the juice obtained can be used to make a sparklingly clear jelly. Take a square of muslin and lay it, with the edges hanging over, across a colander placed over a deep bowl, throw the fruit pulp and juice into the muslin, gather up the four corners and tie them together, leaving a small loop with which to hang the ‘bag’ above the bowl. Remove the colander and leave the fruit to drip without pressing. Spice bags are the same thing in miniature and are used to tie whole spices or pips, peelings and cores into. Try not to leave these small bags in the preserve when potting as they can bear an unpleasant resemblance to a dead mouse!

 Large nylon sieve. Do not use metal if you can help it, for it may react against some vegetables and fruit to leave a taste of ‘bad pennies’.

 A mallet or blunt instrument for cracking kernels, etc.

 Pestle and mortar or equivalent for pounding and grinding. If you decide to use the end of a wooden rolling pin in a basin, take care not to use too much force-I have knocked the bottom out of more basins than I care to remember.

 Jam funnel and a narrow sauce funnel. Although neither of these is essential, they save waste and prevent the odd accident.

 A juice extractor. To extract pure juice the best piece of equipment is a stand-up metal model with a handle to pull down and squeeze the juice from any citrus fruit without taking peel or pith. It also ensures the maximum amount of juice.

 Measuring spoons.

 Wooden board, clean cloths and oven glove.

 Jam thermometer, which is very handy as it cuts out guesswork.

PRESERVING PANS

You can have a very tense time trying to identify what may have gone wrong with the preserve that you have just made. It may look and taste insipid and murky or refuse to set and quite frequently the answer may lie in the pan in which you cooked it.

A few pointers before you start will save you time and trouble:

 A preserving pan should be large enough to take all the ingredients with plenty of room for the contents to rise up without boiling over. The wider the pan, the more quickly the liquid evaporates, hence the more rapid the set.

 Try to use a preserving pan with two-handed grips, not long handles. In this way you will avoid catching the handle whilst working and you will be able to get a far firmer grip on a full, heavy pan. A side-to-side handle across the pan can be dangerous if it catches on its hooks and tips its contents over you and the floor. Remember that unless handles are absolutely well insulated, always wear kitchen gloves when holding pans.

 Heavy-based and preferably copper-clad pans allow a slow and even distribution of heat, which prevents burning when bringing to the boil.

 Do not leave preserves, chutneys, etc. to stand overnight in the preserving pan as this may taint the end product. Pans should be kept scrupulously clean, bright and shiny and if they have been kept in a cupboard, rinse them well before starting.

 Stainless-steel pans are the most satisfactory in every way

 Enamel pans are passable, but must be free from chips and scratches. However, the contents do tend to burn more easily.

 Cast-iron pans with a good enamel finish and flameproof casseroles may be suitable, but are never very large.

 Copper pans are glorious to look at, but they have several disadvantages. Red fruit will lose its colour when cooked in copper, although green fruit such as gooseberries will stay bright and clear whilst blackcurrants will lose much of their high vitamin C content and also refuse to set. Never cook recipes containing vinegar, for example chutney or pickles, in a copper pan as the vinegar reacts adversely with it and can form a toxic substance. Pickled gherkins, for instance, will look amazingly bright green and professional – they will also be lethal. Fruit and vegetables with high oxalic acid content, such as rhubarb, sorrel and spinach, should not be cooked in copper.

 Aluminium pans. The reasons against using copper pans also apply to aluminium.

 Iron and brass pans should never be used.

 A pressure cooker is both very good for cooking and for sterilising.

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

None of the following are essential, but they will certainly make your life easier:

 A food processor with a slicing and shredding attachment. There are many excellent food processors on the market, but you don’t have to go for the top end of the range, you simply need an uncomplicated piece of equipment with variable speeds and an attachment that takes the hard work out of fruit and vegetable preparation.

 A mincer or mincing machine.

 A liquidiser is very handy. Most liquidised pulps have to be sieved as well, but it does cut out the hard labour. A coffee grinder also cuts the hard work out of grinding spices.

 A microwave oven. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for times and quantities as each model varies. The amount of preserve made each time will be limited.

 A slow cooker should be used in the following manner: never fill beyond the manufacturer’s advice; make sure that the mixture is hot when it is put into the cooker; and use medium heat. When the fruit, etc. is cooked, turn it out into a pan before adding the sugar and continuing the recipe. Using a slow cooker is useful for softening the peel of citrus fruit and other fruit and vegetables and means that they can be left to cook gently all day without you having to stand over them. A saving in both time and fuel.

 A pressure cooker. This is a useful addition to the home preservers kitchen and instructions for their use can be found under Marmalade.

 A freezer.

JARS, CONTAINERS AND LIDS

Clean, dry, sterilised jars and bottles are suitable for the majority of preserves. Domestic jars, ie jam jars, honey pots, sauce bottles, etc. are accustomed to some heat, but you must make sure that you thoroughly wash and sterilise the jar by heating first. Always use glass bottles with a cork or plastic top to avoid leaving a taint on the finished product, and use a narrow funnel for pouring.

A word about jar sizes. When you come to fill your jam jars you will realise that the British 1lb/450g jar has evolved into a 13oz/375g size. It is difficult to judge exactly how many jars you will need since much depends on the type of fruit or vegetables used and the cooking time. Big, bulky fruit with a high pectin content, like apples, will fill more jars than a shrinking fruit with little pectin content, such as strawberries. Jam containing commercial pectin will give you jam for your money. Chutney and pickles vary considerably depending on the amount of liquid used and the thickness required. It is always wiser to use very small jars or pots (baby food jars are excellent) for more unusual preserves such as herb jellies, which may not be eaten very quickly and may deteriorate once opened. Therefore, you may take it that an ordinary jam jar referred to is the conventional 375g, a medium jar is 175g and a small jar is approximately 50–75g. Large jars, generally speaking, hold 900g.

Jars can be sealed with wax discs and paper or small rounds of pretty material or paper doilies tied down with string, which is a very attractive option for giving as presents. Screw-top lids can be used to seal any preserve that does not contain vinegar as vinegar corrodes metal and not only makes a nasty mess, but renders the contents unobtainable. However, many jar and bottle caps are now plastic lined.

Strictly speaking, corks should not be used in herb vinegars as they tend to draw out flavour, although many corks are now made from plastic. If in doubt, make a tight twist of greaseproof paper around the bottom of the cork. Bottle corks may be obtained from ironmongers. Make sure that they are clean and dry before using.

When potting with Kilner or preserving jars, always use new bands and the lids and screw or clip seals provided with the jars. An old-fashioned and very competent way of sealing preserves is to pour a thin layer of paraffin wax over the contents, but this has its disadvantages: the preserve must be really thick and well set and besides, it is a very fiddly business.

Some of the recipes for pickles refer to the use of earthenware jars. Although earthenware jars are the traditional containers for pickled fruits and fruits in alcohol, certain facts must be established. First, do make sure that the container is fully glazed and non-porous, otherwise your lovely juice will disappear. Secondly, if it is glazed, it must not be a lead glaze. Lead reacts against vinegar, alcohol and certain fruit with a high acid content to become potentially lethal. Those attractive old-fashioned earthenware containers picked up at car-boot sales and second-hand shops may be lead glazed for in Britain and on the Continent this was predominantly used in the past. Scandinavian countries favoured a borax or salt glaze and these are the ones most frequently used nowadays. A rough guide is in the appearance: borax and salt glazes are usually of a speckled grey stone. Nowadays those highly decorative rumtopf and pickle jars, which have been made specifically for those purposes, one would assume to be safe, but if you are not sure, do not use them.

Clean and polish your containers after you have filled them, label them clearly with the contents and date and store them in a cool dry place away from bright lights, damp, steam and well off concrete floors. Now you can sit back, quite smugly, and enjoy the sight of rows of glowing, glistening and glorious preserves, which are the fruits of your imagination, hard work and labour.

TO STERILISE GLASS BOTTLES OR JARS BEFORE FILLING

Preheat the oven to 120°C/gas mark ½. Wash the bottles or jars and lids in very hot soapy water, rinse and then place in a roasting tray. Pour boiling water into the jars and bottles and over the lids. Discard the water and then place the tray in the preheated oven for 15 minutes. The bottles or jars and lids are then ready to use.

If you put a cold glass jar straight into a hot oven or boiling water it will crack. The same applies to transferring hot jars full of hot preserve on to a cold surface, so lay a wooden board or thick cloth where you intend to place the jars. Decorative glass jars are a different thing and should be carefully tested for their strength before filling with a hot preserve.

TO STERILISE FILLED JARS

This process is used for the final stages of all the sauce, purée and paste recipes. The jars to use for preserves that need sterilising after potting are the four-piece preserving jars with rubber bands, glass lids, screw or clip tops. Before you start cooking your fruit take your clean, dry jars and pop them into a cool oven and bring the heat up to 140°C/gas mark 1. Put the tops of the jars to boil for 10 minutes, bringing the heat up from cold. Just before they are done, drop the rubber bands in as well.

Pour the boiling preserve into the jars. Put on the rubber bands and the tops. Fasten the tops of the jars with screw lids or clips. When using screw lids, give a bare half turn back again to allow for the expansion of the jars. Put a wire rack or false bottom in a preserving pan. Stand the jars in the receptacle, making sure that they do not touch and fill the container with very hot water. Bring to the boil and boil for 5–8 minutes or however long is specified in the recipe. Remove the jars and place on a wooden board or thick cloth. Tighten the screw tops immediately.

Test after 24 hours by removing the clip or screw band – you should be able to lift the jar by the glass tops. If the jar does not fall off, then the seal is complete. If it does fall off, then you will either have to scrape the contents from the floor or eat it within the next few days. This principal is the same as that for bottling fruit and vegetables. Asparagus pans, tall and narrow, are excellent for sterilising bottles.

STORING PRESERVES

As the reason for making preserves is in order to put produce by for another day, it would be expected that jams, preserves, chutneys, sauces and pickles, etc. should last for at least 6 months if they have been made and potted correctly, and most probably longer. Use within a year to be absolutely certain.

Most preserves, unless specifically stated otherwise, can be eaten as soon as they are cooled – usually the next day.

Some preserves, like lemon curd which has eggs and butter in it, are better kept in the fridge once opened.

Chutney will shrink quite considerably over time as it thickens on keeping, so make sure the jar is well filled.

WHAT WENT WRONG?

Nothing can make the keen home preserver weep more copiously than the discovery that all of those glorious well-made pots have ‘gone off’. The waste of time, effort and money is very defeating, but all is not lost. The least problematic is a little growth of fluffy mould on the top of sweet preserves and I am assured that providing the product is homemade, does not smell ‘winey’ or fermenting and has no other discernible bad smell or look, this can be removed. Clean the lid and dry, then replace, keep in the fridge and consume the preserve quickly. I speak from experience.

However, it is so much better to avoid these problems from the start. Apart from problems such as the incorrect use of sugar, fermenting caused by overripe or bruised fruit, or poor colour due to the wrong pan being used, the most common problem of storing jam is that of a mould forming on top.

The most likely cause is an oversight during the potting process. Jars must be scrupulously dried, sterilised To Sterilise Filled Jars and, unless stated otherwise, hot. The jar should be filled carefully to ensure that no air bubbles are trapped (the best way of achieving this is to give the jar one or two taps – doesn’t always work, but often does) and the preserve should reach almost to the top. Jam and jellies shrink on cooling and, not only does this look a bit off, it also means that the chances of a mould forming are greater. As said earlier, chutney and robust pickles will also shrink and thicken on keeping and unless the pot is fully filled, the contents will end up halfway down the jar.

Another cause that I have found is sealing the jar when the preserve is warm. Do one of two things as the recipe states: either seal it as soon as it is potted, providing the jam, etc. is boiling or, if you have waited for it to cool (in the case of whole fruit preserves) to give a better dispersal of fruit, then allow it to become quite cold before sealing. The jar should be properly sealed with wax discs and a lid or cellophane tied down with a rubber band. Cellophane covers should be checked from time to time during keeping to make sure that they have not perished. Store all preserves in cool, dry cupboards away from bright lights, damp, steam and well off concrete floors.

SAFETY IN THE KITCHEN

Boiling jam, syrup or chutney can cause some of the worse scalds and burns imaginable, so never, ever leave your children alone in the kitchen when you are preserving or, better still, do not let them in at all when they are small. If they have to be in the kitchen, make sure that all pans are on the back plates and no handles are sticking out.

For your own protection, never wear flowing sleeves or unbuttoned cardigans, which may catch on, or trail in, the pan. They may also catch on unexpected protuberances in the kitchen and jar the arm that is holding a pan full of boiling contents.

Try to use preserving pans with two-handed grips, not long handles. In this way, you avoid catching the handle as you move around and it also gives you a firm two-handed grip on the pan. All old-fashioned preserving pans were made in this way. A side-to-side handle across the pan can also be dangerous if it catches on its hooks and tips the contents on to your floor, front or feet. Unless handles are absolutely insulated, wear kitchen gloves for holding them.

Always use the back rings of the cooker and keep the pan away from the front where it can tip over and where you have to lean across it. Long-handled wooden spoons are invaluable, for wood does not conduct heat and the long handle will protect you against popping bubbles of erupting jam, etc. Wear an oven glove to protect your hand. A solid plastic measuring jug and funnel make filling jars much easier and, if you stand the jars on a thick cloth or wooden board, this will prevent them from slipping or cracking. Wipe up any liquid or pieces of fruit or vegetable skin, etc, that may have dropped on the floor and try to think of wearing flat-soled, well-fitting shoes.