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Introduction

In 1644, John Milton presented a speech to the English parliament condemning government censorship. In it, he defended the right of citizens to argue with each other, asserting that people must argue in order to learn. “Where there is much desire to learn,” he wrote, “there of necessity will be much arguing, much writing, many opinions; for opinion in good men is but knowledge in the making.” Argument has always been central to learning and life in society. However, the 21st century has created opportunities for controversial discussion and debate in more places and in more ways than Milton probably could have ever imagined.

With the growth of the Internet, opportunities to engage in argumentation have increased considerably. Online forums, social networks, and the comment sections of news websites provide space for debate and discussion about a variety of topics (Anderson, Brossard, Scheufele, Xenos, & Ladwig, 2013; Gil de Zúñiga & Valenzuela, 2011; Mossberger, Tolbert, & McNeal, 2007; Papacharissi, 2004). Political discussions on the Internet attract participants who are often underrepresented in politics, such as people of color, women, and young adults (Correa & Jeong, 2010; McCaughey & Ayers, 2003; Mossberger et al., 2007). This finding is particularly salient when one considers the importance of discussion within the democratic process: when people discuss political issues, they are more likely to take political action in elections and other political events (Huckfeldt & Sprague, 1995; Shah, Cho, Eveland, & Kwak, 2005; Wyatt, Katz, & Kim, 2000).

Although online debate may encourage individuals to participate in argumentation, it does not inherently prepare them to do so effectively. Internet discussions are notorious for eliciting heated, irrational, and even uncivil interactions (Papacharissi, 2004; Shils, 1992). As is similarly the case in offline discussions, individuals sometimes interpret challenges to their online claims as personal attacks, which can lead them to react defensively or even lash out at others. The tendency of users to take online arguments personally has been repeatedly satirized on humor websites such as Cracked.com (2010; Christina H, 2012) and xkcd (2008a; 2008b). Some have speculated that the option to post anonymously does not hold users accountable for rudeness or insensitivity in their comments (Hlavach & Freivogel, 2011; Kling, Lee, Teich, & Frankel, 1999). In fact, the prevalence of offensive and irrational comments in online forums has prompted some websites—such as Popular Science—to close their comment sections entirely (LaBarre, 2013).

In addition to being unsavory, the sometimes hostile nature of online debate may have implications for the democratic process. Bill Reader (2012) pointed out that “with online forums, the gatekeeping has largely disappeared—anybody can post a comment in any manner and on any topic, often without any prescreening by editors” (p. 496). In some ways, the absence of “gatekeeping” can be good for democratic discussion. However, research suggests that online incivility can actually influence the way people think about issues. A study from the University of Wisconsin–Madison indicated that people’s perceptions and opinions about the subject matter of an article became more ingrained after they read uncivil comments, even if they did not have much knowledge or an opinion about the topic beforehand (Anderson et al., 2013).

Furthermore, despite their apparent interest in online politics, eighteen- to twenty-nine-year-old citizens in the U.S. demonstrate “shockingly low levels of political knowledge and information” (Kaid, McKinney, & Tedesco, 2007, p. 1094). Results from the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) indicated that only one-quarter of high school seniors showed at least a proficient level of civics knowledge, even though many of them were old enough to vote (National Center for Education Statistics, 2010). Tony Wagner (2008), the Innovation Education Fellow at the Technology and Entrepreneurship Center at Harvard, put it this way:

Students can always look up when the Battle of Gettysburg took place, or who General Sherman was, but they can’t just Google the causes of the Civil War and make sense of what comes up on the screen. To understand such an issue, you have to know how to think critically, and you need a broader conceptual understanding of American history, economics, and more. (p. 263)

Fortunately, students do not need to rely on Internet message boards to learn to think critically, debate constructively, or become informed citizens. Teachers can help students develop argumentation skills through direct, comprehensive, and ongoing instruction in argumentation. Such instruction prepares students to meet the cognitive and interpersonal demands of life in a democratic society (such as the United States) and is a crucial requirement of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS; NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2010d).

Argumentation and Democratic Life

In the 1980s, education researcher Carole Hahn explored the relationship between classroom climate, controversial discussions, and the resulting political attitudes of students. In her study of adolescents in five different nations (England, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States), Hahn (1998) found that students who discussed controversial public policy issues in safe, open, and respectful environments were more likely to develop the skills needed for life in a democracy. Specifically, students who were encouraged to express opinions and explore alternate perspectives in school were more likely to:

Expect political leaders to act in the best interests of their constituents

Believe that citizens can affect or influence policy decisions

Express interest and general awareness of politics and policy issues

Have confidence in their own ability to influence decisions made in groups

Intend to participate in politics in the future

Spencer Foundation Vice President Diana Hess (2011) has insisted that educators have a responsibility to prepare students for respectful, authentic discussions about public policy. “A democracy without controversial issues,” she wrote, “is like an ocean without fish or a symphony without sound” (p. 69). Paula Cowan and Henry Maitles (2012) agreed, adding that “there must be space in the classroom to discuss socially or politically sensitive issues, whether they be local issues relating to bullying, racism, homophobia and animal welfare, or such international events as the 2003 Iraq War, terrorism or globalization” (p. 5). Given the pervasiveness of controversy and debate in democratic life, it seems obvious that argumentation should be a central feature of 21st century schools.

However, some individuals have warned against the inclusion of controversial issues in the classroom, particularly among younger students (Norwood, 1943; Scruton, Ellis-Jones, & O’Keefe, 1985; Totten, 1999). Classroom discussions about controversial public issues are scarce (Hahn, 1991; Kahne, Rodriguez, Smith, & Thiede, 2000; Shaver, Davis, & Helburn, 1978), and controversial discussions of any kind rarely occur in social studies classrooms (Nystrand, Gamoran, & Carbonaro, 1998). This may be because some teachers feel uncomfortable or unprepared to facilitate them (Torney-Purta, Lehmann, Oswald, & Shulz, 2001). Hess (2011) pointed out:

Many teachers want to create environments in which students feel safe, valued, and respected. Controversial issues, by their very nature, can create passionate responses. This passion often degenerates into silence, anger, disrespect, and name-calling—the very opposite of the interactions teachers hope to promote. . . . Faced with this choice, many opt for respect over passion and avoid heated discussions. But teachers don’t have to make this choice. It is possible to talk about controversial issues in civil and productive ways so that students bring a healthy amount of passion to the classroom without treating one another harshly. (p. 70)

We agree that avoiding controversy in the classroom is not an effective way to prepare students for democratic life. Although avoiding disagreements may be easier in some cases, such practices fail to train students to participate effectively in society. Moreover, they neglect to equip students with the college and career readiness skills outlined in the CCSS.

Argumentation and the Common Core

Argumentation in the classroom has experienced a renewed emphasis with the advent of the CCSS, which defined argument as “a reasoned, logical way of demonstrating that the writer’s position, belief, or conclusion is valid” (NGA & CCSSO, 2010b, p. 23). The CCSS “put particular emphasis on students’ ability to write sound arguments on substantive topics and issues” (NGA & CCSSO, 2010b, p. 24) and cited a number of sources to support this emphasis (ACT, 2009; Graff, 2004; Milewski, Johnson, Glazer, & Kubota, 2005; Postman, 1997). To be college and career ready, the CCSS stated that students should be able to:

Construct effective arguments and convey intricate or multifaceted information. . . . They comprehend as well as critique. . . . They work diligently to understand precisely what an author or speaker is saying, but they also question an author’s or speaker’s assumptions and premises and assess the veracity of claims and the soundness of reasoning. . . . Students cite specific evidence when offering an oral or written interpretation of a text. They use relevant evidence when supporting their own points in writing and speaking, making their reasoning clear to the reader or listener, and they constructively evaluate others’ use of evidence. (NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, p. 7)

As with many standards statements, the one quoted here and others in the CCSS contain many different elements of knowledge and skill that students are expected to master. To identify specific argumentation skills that could be the subject of direct instruction and practice, we conducted an analysis of the CCSS.

In our analysis, we first identified those CCSS that relate to argumentation. In addition to the college and career readiness standards quoted previously, a number of English language arts (ELA) content standards and one standard for mathematical practice address argumentation. Second, we examined each standard to identify the components of argumentation within it. For example, in the previous quote (page 3) from the college and career readiness standards, students are expected to construct effective arguments, convey intricate or multifaceted information, comprehend arguments, critique arguments, understand precisely what an author or speaker is saying, question an author or speaker’s assumptions, and so on. After identifying these components, we grouped them into thirteen overarching argumentation skills, each of which is robust enough to be the subject of direct instruction and student practice. These thirteen overarching skills are listed and described in table I.1.

Table I.1: Argumentation Skills From the CCSS

Distinguishing fact from opinion involves discriminating between statements that are observably true and statements that express personal beliefs.

Presenting and supporting claims involves generating an assertion and providing evidence to back it up.

Explaining the relationship between claims, grounds, and backing involves clarifying exactly how a piece of evidence supports a claim.

Organizing an argument involves arranging claims, grounds, and backing in a logical order.

Citing textual evidence involves using specific quotations or information from a text to support a claim.

Distinguishing a claim from alternate or opposing claims involves using precise language to refine the meaning of a claim or to make it more specific.

Making inductive inferences involves forming reasonable guesses based on observations and background knowledge.

Distinguishing connotation from denotation involves recognizing different implications or nuances among words with similar definitions (such as aroma and stench).

Evaluating persuasive rhetoric involves determining a writer or speaker’s motive based on connotation, emphasis, tone, and figurative language, as well as judging whether these elements were used to mislead.

Identifying errors in reasoning involves analyzing a claim or evidence to decide whether it is logical.

Identifying insufficient or irrelevant evidence involves analyzing evidence to decide whether it adequately supports a claim.

Perspective taking involves recognizing the reasoning behind various (and sometimes conflicting) viewpoints on an issue.

Communicating responsibly involves taking the initiative to create and maintain a positive interaction through constructive words, actions, and behaviors.

Table I.2 (pages 5–13) shows the argumentation-related CCSS we identified and the overarching skill(s) associated with each standard.

Table I.2: Argumentation-Related Standards and Associated Overarching Skills

In table I.2 (page 5), we use the dot notation system to identify standards from the CCSS. In ELA, dot notation indicates a standard using letters for its strand (Reading Literary Text [RL], Reading Informational Text [RI], Writing [W], Speaking and Listening [SL], or Language [L]), a number for its grade level (K–12), and a number for the specific standard to which it refers. For example, consider the notation W.3.1. The letter W indicates Writing, the number 3 indicates grade 3, and the number 1 indicates the first standard in the strand. Therefore, the notation refers to the first standard in the third-grade Writing strand. The mathematical practice standard related to argumentation referenced in table I.2 is denoted by Practice. MP3 (that is, the third standard for mathematical practice). Since the college and career readiness standards are not grade specific, they are not included in table I.2, although they were included in our analysis.

As illustrated by table I.2, the concept of argumentation spirals and builds through grades K–12.Some standards involve only one skill while others involve several. Furthermore, the skills associated with each standard develop from grade to grade, becoming more complex as students advance. For example, the skill of presenting and supporting claims looks different at each grade level. Kindergartners are expected to present opinions without any evidence, whereas first graders must give reasons—basic evidence—to support their claims. By third grade, students are expected to organize claims and evidence using linking words and phrases such as because or for example.

While we acknowledge that the process of identifying overarching argumentation skills is not an exact science, we strove to identify those argumentation skills from the CCSS that could be directly taught to students and practiced through games and activities in the classroom. This book presents strategies for teaching each argumentation skill and includes games that teachers can use to reinforce and help students practice each skill.

Direct Instruction in Argumentation

As shown previously, each of the skills in table I.1 (page 4) come directly from the CCSS, and teachers can use the games in this book to help students practice those skills. Note, however, that the games are designed for practicing argumentation skills. Before playing a game, students will need direct instruction in the skills associated with that game. Table I.3 (page 15) shows the argumentation skills associated with each game. Here, we provide guidelines and suggest instructional activities for teachers to use to teach each of the thirteen overarching argumentation skills.

Distinguishing Fact From Opinion

To understand the basic concept of an argument, students have to tell the difference between facts, which are statements that can be verified, and opinions, which express personal beliefs and may be accompanied by reasons for those beliefs. Teachers can use the following process to teach students to distinguish fact from opinion:

1.Explain what facts are.

2.Explain what opinions are.

3.Give examples of facts, opinions, and statements that do not clearly fall into either category.

This process is based on strategies described by Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering (1997). Here, we briefly describe each step of the process.

Table I.3: Argumentation Skills Associated With Games

Explain Facts

As stated previously, a fact is a statement that can be verified. For example, the statement “December is generally colder than August in the United States” is a fact. It can be confirmed or disproved by checking data on temperatures in the United States during each month. When teaching students about facts, explain that a fact is a statement that is verifiable and can be confirmed. If a fact is disproven, it is no longer a fact, but an incorrect statement. Emphasize that not all statements can be classified as either facts or opinions. For example, “Barack Obama was born in Kenya” is not a fact or an opinion because it can be disproven. Since there is evidence—a birth certificate specifying that he was born in Hawaii—to invalidate it, the statement is not a fact or opinion, but a false or incorrect statement. Finally, students need to understand what facts are and be able to confirm or disprove them so they can use facts to support their opinions.

Explain Opinions

Opinions are statements with which others may agree or disagree. They cannot be verified, but they can be supported with evidence. For example, the statement “Ronald Reagan was the best president” is an opinion. There are two points to emphasize when teaching students about opinions. First, opinions are often (although not always) accompanied by support or evidence; the person expressing an opinion can usually explain why he or she holds that opinion or belief. Second, statements do not always fit neatly into one category (opinion) or another (fact). Instead, they fall along a continuum, with facts that can be empirically verified at one end (for example, “Eight convicted felons were executed last year”) and statements that are pure opinion at the other (for example, “Capital punishment is wrong”). If students are having trouble classifying a statement as fact or opinion, it is likely because it is close to the middle of the continuum (for example, “Capital punishment deters crime”).

Give Examples

After teaching students the difference between facts and opinions, give them clear examples of each and discuss why they are facts or opinions. We present several examples of each in table I.4.

Table I.4: Examples of Fact and Opinion

To reinforce the idea that facts and opinions fall along a continuum—with pure facts at one end, pure opinions at the other, and some statements in between—also give students examples of statements that fall closer to the middle of the continuum. Students will likely find these statements more difficult to classify as facts or opinions. Examples of such statements include:

There is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe.

I think it’s going to rain this afternoon.

Increased taxation stifles economic growth.

After presenting a number of examples of facts, opinions, and statements that fall in between, ask students to make statements or find them in the media. Discuss as a class where each statement falls on the continuum from fact to opinion or whether it belongs on the continuum at all.

Presenting and Supporting Claims

Presenting and supporting claims involves stating opinions and providing evidence to support them. To teach students how to present and support claims, we recommend the following process:

1.Present an example claim to students and model how to support it with evidence.

2.Explain the concepts of claims, grounds, backing, and qualifiers to students.

3.Explain that certain words and phrases can signal different parts of an argument.

This process is based on a number of sources (Marzano & Heflebower, 2012; Marzano & Pickering, 1997). The following sections describe each step of the process in detail.

Present and Support an Example Claim

Introduce the idea of presenting and supporting claims by modeling it for students. State a claim about an issue that will be of interest to students (for example, “Students should attend school year-round”). Explain that you are going to try to convince them to agree with your claim. Ask them to notice the strategies that you use to persuade them. Then present evidence for your claim. For example, you might say, “Students should attend school year-round because they often forget what they learned in school over the summer. A 2007 study by three researchers named Alexander, Entwisle, and Olson found that during the school year, the academic growth of low-income students was comparable to that of other students but during the summer, low-income students forgot more information than other students. It’s true that year-round schooling may not be the only solution to this problem of forgetting information, but it would prevent achievement gaps that are created by summer breaks.”

After presenting a claim and support for it, ask students to explain the strategies they observed you using. You can prompt them to notice specific parts of your argument using the following questions:

What opinion was I trying to persuade you to agree with?

What reason did I give you to agree with me?

What evidence did I give to support that reason?

Which potential objection did I address?

The first question is designed to help students identify the claim, the second prompts them to identify grounds for the claim, the third highlights backing, and the fourth concerns qualifiers. Once students have answered questions like these, you can introduce the formal terms for each part of an argument.

Explain Claims, Grounds, Backing, and Qualifiers

Robert Marzano and Tammy Heflebower (2012) described four elements of an effective argument, which are based on Stephen Toulmin’s (2003) model of argumentation: claim, grounds, backing, and qualifiers. Table I.5 describes and exemplifies each element.

Table I.5: Four Elements of an Argument

As shown in table I.5, an effective argument usually presents a claim and provides support in the form of grounds, backing, and qualifiers.

Teachers can explain each element in more depth. For claims, point out that there are different types of claims: value claims assert that something is good, bad, right, or wrong, and action claims assert that something should or should not be done. There are also different types of backing: expert opinion, research results, and factual information. The type of backing that students use in their own arguments and encounter in others’ arguments will vary, as different grounds call for different types of backing. Table I.6 defines and exemplifies each of these types of backing.

Signal Words and Phrases

Signal words (such as describing words or transition words) can help students identify each element of an argument. For example, the words because and reason often signal grounds. Phrases such as according to, reported in, and found by frequently indicate backing. Concession words and phrases like despite, although, granted that, and in spite of usually precede qualifiers. Table I.7 lists signal words and phrases for each element of an argument.

Table I.6: Different Types of Backing

Source: Adapted from Marzano & Heflebower, 2012.

Table I.7: Signal Words and Phrases for Argument Elements

Element	Signal Words and Phrases
Claim	Describing words (such as awful, amazing, beautiful, disgusting, miserable, and favorite), modal verbs (such as should, must, and ought to), and superlatives (such as best, worst, most, and smartest)
Grounds	Cause and effect words (such as because, as a result, due to, since, and for that reason) and temporal transition words (such as first, next, and finally)
Backing	Illustrating transition words (such as for example, for instance, to explain, to elaborate, specifically, in particular, such as, according to, as reported in, and as found by)
Qualifiers	Concession words (such as even if, despite the fact, albeit, admitting, granting, although, at any rate, at least, still, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of, of course, just because . . . doesn’t mean, necessarily, and whereas)

Signal words and phrases can also alert students to the various types of backing being used to support grounds and claims. Table I.8 (page 20) lists the different types of backing and the signal words and phrases usually associated with each type.

Table I.8: Words and Phrases That Signal Different Types of Backing

	Signal Words and Phrases
Expert Opinion	According to, as [so-and-so] stated, in keeping with, expert, endorsed, believed, recommended, accomplished, foremost, leading, master, pre-eminent
Research Results	As reported in, studies show, according to, data, findings, found, percent, percentile, average number of, reports, statistics, participants
Factual Information	True, certain, absolute, objective, proven, unquestionable, infallible, and any form of the verb to be (including is, was, are, and were)

Note that certain signal words and phrases overlap. For example, the phrase according to is listed as a signal phrase for both expert opinion and research results. As with all signal words and phrases, those associated with each element of an argument and with the various types of backing should be evaluated in context. To illustrate, a statement that contains the modal verb should is likely to be an action claim (as in “Kids should be allowed to stay up past 9 p.m.”), but there are also instances when it simply indicates a question (as in “Should we go outside?”). Students should use signal words and phrases as clues to alert them to the various elements of an argument and the various types of backing.

Explaining the Relationship Between Claims, Grounds, and Backing

Explaining the relationship between claims, grounds, and backing involves explicitly stating how each piece of evidence presented supports the original claim. It forces students to think more deeply about the relationships between the various elements of an argument. To help students learn this skill, teachers can:

1.Ask students to make a claim and provide grounds, backing, and qualifiers for it.

2.Ask students to explain relationships within their own claim.

3.Ask students to explain relationships in other claims.

Here, we provide detail about each step of the process.

Make a Claim

To understand the relationship between claims, grounds, and backing, students first need to make a claim and provide grounds, backing, and qualifiers for it. You might ask individual students to each design a claim with grounds, backing, and qualifiers, or students could collaborate in small groups to design group claims and support. For example, a group of students might claim that people should not smoke. As grounds for the claim, they say, “Because many medical organizations have found that smoking causes lung cancer.” Their backing might include research results and expert opinions from the American Association for Cancer Research, the American Lung Association, the National Cancer Institute, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services illustrating that smoking causes lung cancer. They might qualify their argument by saying that there are cases of lung cancer that are not caused by smoking.

Explain Relationships Within Their Own Claim

To explain the relationship between claims, grounds, and backing, students should clearly articulate how their backing supports their claim. To do this, students must make explicit relationships that might be implicit. For example, the small group that claimed people should not smoke because smoking causes lung cancer (grounds and backing) might explain that getting lung cancer is undesirable. Their grounds and backing provide support for the idea that smoking causes lung cancer, but the premise or general rule that links their evidence to their claim is that no one wants lung cancer. Explicitly stating the connection between a claim, grounds, and backing simply involves connecting the backing back to the original claim. It can be useful to think of this process in a circular fashion, as depicted in figure I.1.

Figure I.1: Explicitly stating the connection between a claim, grounds, and backing involves connecting the backing back to the original claim.

Of course, this particular connection—that lung cancer is undesirable—is rather self-evident. Sometimes people automatically connect evidence to a claim without consciously acknowledging or explaining the general rule. However, giving students practice in explaining simple relationships between claims, grounds, and backing in familiar arguments helps prepare them to explain more complex relationships in other arguments.

When students explain the connection between claims, grounds, and backing, it helps them understand that claims are not always the first step in an argument. Often, claims are the result of evidence, or information that leads someone to a conclusion. For example, if you notice that five crimes were committed within two blocks of one another, it might lead you to claim that a particular neighborhood is unsafe. As grounds, you might say, “Because a high number of crimes are committed there.” Backing might include statistics about the average number of crimes per block in the city that year. To explain the connection between claims, grounds, and backing, you could say, “Lots of crime makes a neighborhood unsafe [premise or rule], and this neighborhood has lots of crime [grounds and backing]; therefore, this neighborhood is unsafe [claim].”

Explain Relationships in Other Claims

When students are analyzing their own claims or others’ claims, explaining the relationship between claims, grounds, and backing can help them identify erroneous or illogical reasoning. For example, a student might claim that a woman would make an irrational president because women cry more easily than men (claim and grounds), and give as backing the results of a study showing that women cried more often than men during tragic or sad movies. Another student explaining the connection between claims, grounds, and backing in this claim might point out that this claim is equating “being irrational” with “crying during tragic or sad movies,” two things that are not necessarily equal. This allows students to identify errors in reasoning or claims based on general rules that are not necessarily valid.

Organizing an Argument

Organizing an argument involves arranging claims, grounds, and backing in a logical order. Marzano and his colleagues (1988) defined organizing skills as those used to “arrange information so it can be understood or presented more effectively” (p. 80). Students typically find support for a claim by collecting relatively unorganized information from many sources. To present their argument, they need to organize the information. Teachers can use the following process to help students organize arguments:

1.Help students understand the structure of an effective argument.

2.Have students classify information according to whether or not it supports a claim.

3.Have students organize supporting information into grounds and backing for the claim.

4.Have students use nonsupporting information to write qualifiers for the claim.

Here, we detail how teachers can help students accomplish each step in the process.

Structure of an Argument

Fundamentally, an argument is a claim supported by evidence (grounds and backing). Qualifiers state exceptions to a claim. Based on the CCSS and Toulmin’s (2003) model, we recommend the argument organization template depicted in figure I.2.

Figure I.2: The organization of an effective argument.

Adapted from Toulmin, 2003.

As shown in figure I.2, a well-organized argument is typically centered on one main claim. This claim can be supported by as many grounds (young students might call these reasons) as necessary, but it usually has at least two or three, each of which is supported by backing. Students can then use qualifiers to modify or clarify any of these three elements.

To help students understand the structure of an argument, teachers might show them how it works with a simple example claim, such as the one in figure I.3.

Figure I.3: A well-organized argument for the claim that Batman is the best superhero.

In a persuasive essay, the claim—often called a thesis statement—is introduced in the first paragraph or section. Grounds are then presented one by one in the body of the essay, each supported by backing—factual information, expert opinion, or research results.

Classifying Information

As students collect information to support their claims, they will probably also find information that does not support their claims. Each type of information is important and can strengthen an argument if properly organized and then used appropriately. As students collect information, they should classify it according to whether or not it supports the claim. For example, a student collecting information to support the claim “Electric cars reduce pollution and environmental damage” might classify the information she finds as shown in table I.9 (page 24).

Table I.9: Information Related to the Claim “Electric Cars Reduce Pollution and Environmental Damage”

Supports the Claim	Does Not Support the Claim
According to a 2012 study, emissions from electric cars compare equally or favorably to gasoline-powered cars. In countries where electricity is mainly generated by burning coal, electric cars produce about the same emissions as gasoline-powered cars. In countries where electricity is generated in cleaner ways without coal, electric cars produce less than half the emissions of gasoline-powered cars (Wilson, 2013).	Building an electric car produces about thirty thousand pounds of carbon-dioxide emission, compared to fourteen thousand pounds for a conventional car. Unless the car is driven for a long time, an electric car can actually create more carbon-dioxide emissions over its lifetime than a gasoline-powered car, because its manufacture releases so much pollution (Lomborg, 2013).
Elon Musk, CEO of electric car manufacturer Tesla, stated, “In a stationary power plant, you can afford to have something that weighs a lot more, is voluminous, and you can take the waste heat and run a steam turbine and generate a secondary power source. . . . Even using the same source fuel, you’re at least twice as better off” (as quoted in Davies, 2013). The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA, 2013) projected that the share of national electricity from renewable resources would increase from 11 percent in 2009 to 15 percent in 2025.The EIA also projected that the share of national electricity from coal would decrease from 44 percent in 2009 to about 28 percent in 2025.	The electricity used to recharge electric cars is often produced by burning fossil fuels (such as coal), which produces carbon-dioxide emissions (Zehner, 2013). The mining of compounds used in electric car batteries, such as lithium, copper, and nickel, requires high amounts of energy. These compounds can release toxic wastes if improperly handled (Zehner, 2013).
The Union of Concerned Scientists reported that when “electricity used to power the vehicle comes from resources such as wind and solar power, EVs [electric vehicles] can operate nearly emissions-free” (Anair & Mahmassani, 2012, p. 2).

Acknowledging and classifying information that does not support the claim, rather than ignoring it, allows students to construct qualifiers that ultimately strengthen their arguments. However, students should first organize the information that supports their claim into grounds and backing.

Organize Grounds and Backing

To review, grounds are overarching reasons to agree with a claim. They often begin with the word because. The claim “Dogs are better than cats,” for example, might be supported by the following grounds: because they are smarter, because they are friendlier, because they are less picky about what they eat, and so on. Backing, on the other hand, is specific evidence (such as expert opinions, research results, or factual information) that shows the grounds are valid. To support the grounds that dogs are smarter than cats, one might cite a quote from an expert animal trainer or research that shows dogs are smarter.

The information that students collect to support their claim is backing. They can organize the backing they collect into related categories and then write grounds for each category. Table I.10 shows how the student who collected supporting information for the claim “Electric cars reduce pollution and environmental damage” might sort supporting information into categories and create grounds for each category.

Table I.10: Supporting Information Sorted Into Grounds and Backing

Grounds	Backing
Electric cars emit less carbon dioxide than gasoline-powered cars.	According to a 2012 study, emissions from electric cars compare equally or favorably to gasoline-powered cars. In countries where electricity is mainly generated by burning coal, electric cars produce about the same emissions as gasoline-powered cars. In countries where electricity is generated in cleaner ways without coal, electric cars produce less than half the emissions of gasoline-powered cars (Wilson, 2013). The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA; 2013) projected that the share of national electricity from renewable resources would increase from 11 percent in 2009 to 15 percent in 2025.The EIA also projected that the share of national electricity from coal would decrease from 44 percent in 2009 to about 28 percent in 2025.
Burning fossil fuels in large plants to create electricity that powers electric cars is more efficient and produces less pollution than burning fossil fuels in the engines of individual cars.	Elon Musk, CEO of electric car manufacturer Tesla, stated, “In a stationary power plant, you can afford to have something that weighs a lot more, is voluminous, and you can take the waste heat and run a steam turbine and generate a secondary power source. . . . Even using the same source fuel, you’re at least twice as better off” (as quoted in Davies, 2013).
Clean energy sources, such as solar and wind energy, can be used to charge electric cars.	The Union of Concerned Scientists reported that when “electricity used to power the vehicle comes from resources such as wind and solar power, EVs [electric vehicles] can operate nearly emissions-free” (Anair & Mahmassani, 2012, p. 2).

As shown in table I.10, the student sorted the expert opinions, research results, and factual information she had collected into three related categories. She then created three grounds or reasons for the claim, each of which describes one of the categories of backing.

Write Qualifiers

Finally, students can use nonsupporting information they find to construct qualifiers for their claim. That is, they can specify situations in which their claim might not apply or address potential objections to their claim as part of their argument. For example, the student who claimed that electric cars reduce pollution and environmental damage found three pieces of information that did not support that claim (see the right column of table I.9). She might construct the following qualifiers using that information:

While it is true that building an electric car uses more energy and emits more carbon dioxide than building a gasoline-powered car, electric cars emit zero carbon dioxide while being driven, offsetting the initial emissions from their manufacture.

Although generating electricity to power electric cars produces carbon-dioxide emissions, many countries in the world are switching to cleaner, renewable energy sources for electricity. This means that electric cars will simply get cleaner and cleaner as power grids around the world become cleaner.

Despite the fact that electric car batteries require lots of energy to produce, when recycled properly, they do not emit toxic wastes. Moreover, compared to the batteries in gasoline-powered cars, the components of electric car batteries are very valuable and therefore more likely to be properly handled and recycled.

Once qualifiers have been constructed, the student can present his or her argument using the organizational structure shown in figure I.2 (page 22).

Citing Textual Evidence

Citing textual evidence involves using specific quotations or information from a text to support a claim. The CCSS require students to “defend their interpretations or judgments with evidence from the text(s) they are writing about” (NGA & CCSSO, 2010b, p. 23). Here, we present two ways that teachers can help students use textual evidence to support and defend their arguments:

1.Ask students to find textual evidence to support an existing claim.

2.Ask students to use textual evidence to construct a claim.

Here, we provide detail about each method.

Support an Existing Claim

At times, students need to support an existing claim with textual evidence. When this is the case, first ask students to annotate the text, marking any evidence that might support the claim. Consider, for example, a student who needs textual evidence to back up the following claim: “In the poem ‘Because I could not stop for Death,’ Emily Dickinson personifies death to show that we should not fear it.” The student begins by highlighting all words or phrases in the poem that use personification, a device that attributes human characteristics to nonhuman entities, as shown in table I.11.

Table I.11: Personification in “Because I could not stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson (1890/1960)

Because I could not stop for Death— He kindly stopped for me— The Carriage held but just Ourselves— And Immortality.	Or rather—He passed us— The Dews drew quivering and chill— For only Gossamer, my Gown— My Tippet—only Tulle—
We slowly drove—He knew no haste And I had put away My labor and my leisure too, For His Civility—	We paused before a House that seemed A Swelling of the Ground— The Roof was scarcely visible— The Cornice—in the Ground—
We passed the School, where Children strove At Recess—in the Ring— We passed the Fields of Grazing Grain— We passed the Setting Sun—	Since then—’tis Centuries—and yet Feels shorter than the Day I first surmised the Horses’ Heads Were toward Eternity—

After highlighting all instances of personification, the student arranges the textual evidence into categories, which become the grounds for the claim. The textual evidence itself is the backing for each of these grounds. Table I.12 illustrates how the student might sort his textual evidence.

Table I.12: Textual Evidence From “Because I could not stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson (1890/1960)

Grounds	Backing
Dickinson portrays Death as a kind person.	“Death” (line 1) is capitalized like a person’s name. The speaker refers to Death with the pronoun “He” (line 2) instead of the pronoun “it.” The line “He kindly stopped for me” (line 2) makes Death seem courteous and thoughtful—the speaker could not stop for herself, so he does it for her.
The speaker embraces Death as she would a suitor.	Death picks up the speaker in a “Carriage” (line 3) as if he is courting her. The carriage held “but just Ourselves” (line 3), which makes the two seem like lovers. The phrase “His Civility” (line 8) portrays Death as gallant or chivalrous; he is taking care of the speaker. From the repeated use of the pronoun “We” (lines 5, 9, 11, 12, 17), we can infer that the speaker has accepted her union with Death.
The speaker seems relaxed by the fact that death is out of her control.	The line “We slowly drove” (line 5)—as well as the repeated use of the phrase “We passed” (lines 9–12)—makes the journey to death seem painless and relaxing. The speaker is able to look one last time at the world she is leaving behind. The setting sun is also personified as a man: “He [the sun] passed us” (line 13). Because the only other inhuman thing personified in the poem is Death, it could be that the gradual beauty of a sunset also symbolizes death.

Highlighting potential evidence, narrowing it down, and sorting it into grounds is an excellent way for students to support a pre-existing claim with textual evidence. Sometimes, however, students must collect textual evidence and use it to construct a claim.

Construct a Claim

When students need to construct a claim based on textual evidence, they must first find textual evidence that seems interesting or important. One of the best ways to do this is to annotate the text by marking important or interesting quotes with pencil, highlighter, or sticky notes and then organize the quotes in a double-entry journal, as shown in table I.13.

Table I.13: Double-Entry Journal for Textual Evidence From “Casey at the Bat” by Ernest Lawrence Thayer (1888)

Quotations	Why the Quotation Seemed Important
Clung to that hope which springs eternal in the human breast (line 6)	This seems like a really big, noble idea.
Upon that stricken multitude grim melancholy sat (line 11)	This seems like something really important and bad has happened, like somebody died.
When the dust had lifted (line 15)	This is what people say after horrible fights or wars.
Then from 5,000 throats and more there rose a lusty yell; / It rumbled through the valley, it rattled in the dell; / It knocked upon the mountain and recoiled upon the flat (lines 17–19)	This is exaggerating how the audience acts when Casey heads to bat. It makes it sound like a tall tale (like Paul Bunyan or something).
There went up a muffled roar, / Like the beating of the storm-waves on a stern and distant shore (lines 33–34)	This seems really important too because it makes it sound like the audience is as powerful as the ocean.
“Kill him! Kill the umpire!” shouted some one on the stand; / And it’s likely they’d have killed him had not Casey raised his hand (lines 35–36)	Did Casey really keep them from killing the umpire? Killing is pretty serious. Could one person really stop thousands of people?
With a smile of Christian charity great Casey’s visage shone (line 37)	This makes me think of God.
Close by the sturdy batsman the ball unheeded sped — / “That ain’t my style,” said Casey. “Strike one,” the umpire said (lines 31–32) But Casey still ignored it, and the umpire said, “Strike two” (line 40)	Casey has ignored two pitches which means he is being cocky.
Oh, somewhere in this favored land the sun is shining bright; / The band is playing somewhere, and somewhere hearts are light, / And somewhere men are laughing, and somewhere children shout; / But there is no joy in Mudville—mighty Casey has struck out (lines 49–52)	This sounds like something really bad has happened, a lot worse than someone just striking out in a baseball game. It is kind of funny that everyone is so depressed about a baseball game. It’s also funny that Casey struck out because he was so sure he was going to win.

In the double-entry journal in table I.13, the student first filled in the left column with phrases from the poem that seemed important or interesting. Then the student explained why each quote seemed important or interesting in the right column. Once students have identified textual evidence that seems important and articulated why it is important, they can look for connections or patterns in the quotations they have found. For example, the student who identified the textual evidence in table I.13 might notice three patterns: (1) some of the textual evidence compares the baseball game to a war, (2) some textual evidence compares the power of the audience to natural forces, and (3) other textual evidence makes Casey seem almost godlike. These patterns together make the events of the poem seem exaggerated. Finally, students should make a general statement that explains the connections or patterns they observed. The student who read “Casey at the Bat” might make the claim “The author of ‘Casey at the Bat’ uses exaggerations to make fun of how seriously some people take sports games.” The student would then arrange the textual evidence into grounds and backing to support the claim, as shown in figure I.4.

After organizing the grounds and backing in their double-entry journals, students should skim or reread the text to search for more textual evidence to use as backing in support of their claim. As shown in figure I.4, the student has added some new quotes from the text that were not included in her double-entry journal. At this point, students should also search for contradictory or conflicting evidence and use it to refine their claims or grounds.

Figure I.4: Organization of an argument using textual evidence from “Casey at the Bat.”

Distinguishing a Claim From Alternate or Opposing Claims

Distinguishing a claim from alternate or opposing claims involves using precise language to refine the meaning of a claim or make it more specific. For example, in the previous example claim, “Batman is the best superhero” (page 23), the term best does not precisely distinguish the claim from alternate or opposing claims. This claim might mean that Batman is the most handsome superhero, or that he is the smartest superhero, or that he is the most resourceful superhero, or that he is the kindest superhero, and so on. These are alternate claims. A villain might define the best superhero as one who doesn’t catch many bad guys (an opposing claim). Depending on how best is defined, “Batman is the best superhero” can mean many different things. Therefore, students need to be able to use precise language to distinguish a claim from alternate or opposing claims. To help students do this, teachers can:

1.Ask students to examine the words used in the claim, grounds, backing, and qualifiers to identify and revise subjective or imprecise terms.

2.Ask students to use words and phrases that signal basic relationships to express meaning more clearly.

Here, we explain and exemplify each strategy.

Revise Subjective or Imprecise Terms

Once students have articulated a claim, given grounds for the claim, provided backing for the grounds, and specified qualifiers, they can examine the wording of the claim to eliminate subjective or imprecise terms. For example, figure I.3 (page 23) illustrated the structure of an argument using the simple claim “Batman is the best superhero.” One of the grounds for that claim is “He has a cool costume.” The term cool is a subjective term: what is cool to one person might not be considered cool by someone else. Table I.14 lists other examples of subjective or imprecise terms that might be used in claims.

Table I.14: Examples of Subjective or Imprecise Language

all

always

amazing

anything

awful

best

cool

every

everyone

everything

excellent

fantastic

fun/funny

great

I think that

important

in my opinion

lots/a lot

never

nobody

none

often

quality

some

something

stuff

things

The list in table I.14 is not exhaustive. Teachers could have students generate additional words and phrases that might be considered imprecise and discuss better alternatives. For example, in the Batman claim, replacing the word cool with the word useful makes the grounds much more defensible; one can list the distinctive tools and features of Batman’s costume that highlight its unique practicality when compared to others. Similarly, the backing “He never kills anyone” is imprecise because villains sometimes do die as a result of their interactions with Batman. A more precise way of stating that particular backing might be “He never kills anyone on purpose.”

Another example can be found in figure I.4 (page 29), which organizes text evidence to support the claim “The author of ‘Casey at the Bat’ uses exaggerations to make fun of how seriously some people take sports games.” The student originally chooses to use “The author makes Casey seem like a god” as grounds for the claim, but then she notices that Casey’s strikeout at the end of the poem does not support these grounds very well. This realization causes the student to read the poem more closely. Based on more text evidence, she concludes that while the author does not consistently depict Casey as flawless, the audience reveres Casey throughout the poem. Therefore, the student might revise the grounds statement to read “The audience worships Casey like a god,” which supports her claim more accurately and more precisely.

Use Words and Phrases That Signal Basic Relationships

Robert Marzano, Patricia Hagerty, Sheila Valencia, and Philip DiStefano (1987) identified four types of basic relationships that students can use to refine their claims and distinguish them from alternate or opposing claims. Those relationships are:

Addition—One idea is similar to or adds to another idea.

Contrast—One idea is different from or subtracts from another idea.

Time—One idea occurs before, during, or after another idea.

Cause—One idea is the cause or condition for another idea.

Each of these relationships has specific subtypes, and each subtype has signal words and phrases associated with it, as shown in table I.15.

Table I.15: Subtypes and Signal Words and Phrases for Basic Relationships

Source: Adapted from Marzano & Heflebower, 2012.

A student might use the signal words and phrases in table I.15 to refine and distinguish a claim such as “Miguel de Cervantes’s Don Quixote is a funny book.” First, the student might ask herself, “Which of the four basic relationships is represented in my claim?” She decides that her claim is one of contrast; she is asserting that Don Quixote is a funny book in contrast to other, more serious books of its time on the same subject. Then, the student considers the subtypes of contrast relationships: antithesis, alternative, comparison, and concession. After she determines that her claim is essentially one of comparison, she uses the signal words and phrases associated with that subtype to restate her claim in a way that distinguishes it from alternative or opposing claims: “In contrast to other romances of its time, Don Quixote explores chivalry from a humorous perspective.” Notice that the student also refined the imprecise term funny and clarified the genre and subject of her claim.

Making Inductive Inferences

Making inductive inferences involves forming reasonable guesses based on observations and background knowledge. Marzano and Pickering (1997) highlighted the process of inductive reasoning and presented three strategies teachers can use to introduce students to that process:

1.Help students understand the mental process of making inductive inferences.

2.Give students a model for the process of making inductive inferences.

3.Help students focus on critical steps and difficult aspects of the process.

Here, we describe each strategy in detail.

Understand the Mental Process

To introduce students to the process of making inductive inferences, use a concrete example. Walk into the classroom, slam the door, throw a pile of books and papers on your desk, frown, sigh, and cross your arms in front of your chest. Ask students what conclusions they reached as they observed these actions (for example, they might say, “You’re angry”). Explain that when they make specific observations and draw conclusions from them, they are performing a mental process called making inferences. To help them understand that inferences are not necessarily true, ask them to identify other possible causes of your behavior, such as being in a hurry or being tired.

A Model for Making Inductive Inferences

Although making inductive inferences is a mental process, a concrete model can help students make high-quality inferences. Marzano and Pickering (1997) recommended the following process:

1.Without assuming anything, focus on specific pieces of information or observations.

2.Look for patterns or connections in the information and observations.

3.Make a general statement to explain the patterns or connections.

4.Gather more information and observations to see if your statement holds up; if not, adjust it accordingly.

To provide opportunities for students to practice the process, go on an inference walk around the school building or grounds. Model the process using a think-aloud. For example, in the cafeteria, you might say, “I’m looking around, and I notice that mayonnaise and pickles are set out at the condiment table. I’m also noticing that there isn’t any silverware set out by the trays today. I smell chicken cooking, and I can see hamburger buns stacked up in the lunch line. Let me put all of this information together. It could be that chicken sandwiches are today’s entrée. What else do I see or know that would support or refute that inference?” Once students are familiar with the process, have them practice in small groups or pairs as the class moves to different locations.

Critical Steps and Difficult Aspects

As students practice making inductive inferences, it is important to make sure they are aware of particular complexities that accompany the process. First, when students are learning to make inductive inferences, they may state conclusions that are not the result of seeing patterns or connections in information; that is, they may state ideas that are not actually inferences. For example:

Restating original information—“I conclude that the man is happy because he said he was glad.”

Describing an observation—“I conclude that the boiling water turned into steam.”

Offering opinions—“I conclude that she should not have hit her sister.”

These are not inferences. Students need many opportunities to practice generating conclusions that represent patterns or connections among observations or pieces of information.

Second, students need to base their inferences on observation and information rather than assumptions and biases. For example, concluding that Edgar Allan Poe was obsessed with death because “Poe’s poems are weird” is not an inference because it is based on opinion, not observation. To help students understand what constitutes objective information or observations and what is considered a subjective opinion, assumption, or bias, give examples of each (as shown in table I.16) and discuss what makes each distinctive.

Table I.16: Examples of Objective and Subjective Information

Objective Information or Observations	Subjective Opinions, Assumptions, or Biases
Samantha has her head down on her desk.	Samantha is pouting.
The little boy ran away from the woman.	The little boy is naughty.
He walked quickly to the door.	He wanted to see what was outside.
There is a lot of salt in this food.	This food is terrible.
She has a temperature of 101 degrees.	She has the flu.

Finally, inferences should be based on as many observations or pieces of information as possible. Inferences cannot be proven to be true, but they become more likely as more information is found to support them.

Distinguishing Connotation From Denotation

Distinguishing connotation from denotation involves recognizing different implications or nuances among words with similar definitions (such as aroma and stench). Teachers can use the following process to help students understand the difference between the two:

1.Explain connotations and denotations.

2.Ask students to generate examples of terms that have the same denotation but different connotations.

3.Ask students to think of multiple denotations for a particular term.

Here, we provide detail about each step of the process.

Explain Connotations and Denotations

Denotations are definitions or literal meanings of words. Connotations are more nuanced—they are different shades of meaning associated with a particular term or phrase. To illustrate, the words aroma and stench are similar in denotation; both refer to strong smells. However, the word aroma has positive connotations (it usually describes a good smell) while the word stench has negative connotations (it usually describes a bad smell). Additionally, the same word can have multiple denotations. For example, the word run can mean to move quickly, to drip or leak, to use a running play in football, and so on.

Examples of Connotations

To help students understand connotation, ask them to list a number of terms that refer to the same concept (that is, synonyms for the concept). For example, given the concept smart, students might come up with a variety of synonyms such as clever, intelligent, brainy, shrewd, nerdy, bright, brilliant, and so on. Ask them to then classify the terms they generate into those with positive, negative, or neutral connotations. Once the terms have been sorted into categories, have students discuss the defining characteristics of each category.

Examples of Multiple Denotations

To help students understand denotation, ask them to list all the denotations of simple words that have multiple meanings (for example, play, blow, break, split, run, fly, fall, light, and space). Students might explain that play can refer to a theatrical production, to something children do, to participating in sports, and so on. The overall goal of this activity is for students to understand that one word can have multiple different denotations. Students can engage in making these lists by creating videos that highlight the various denotations of particular words (see an example of such a video by NPR’s Radiolab [Radiolab, 2010] at www.radiolab.org/story/91974-bonus-video-words).

Evaluating Persuasive Rhetoric

Evaluating persuasive rhetoric involves determining a writer or speaker’s motive based on connotation, emphasis, tone, and figurative language, as well as judging whether these elements were used to mislead. To help students evaluate persuasive rhetoric, teachers can use the following process:

1.Identify and clearly articulate the speaker’s perspective.

2.Identify biased language in the speaker’s argument.

3.Understand appeals the speaker may be using.

4.Examine the motives behind the speaker’s perspective.

Here, we briefly describe each step of the process.

Articulate the Speaker’s Perspective

The best way for students to identify and articulate a speaker’s perspective is to try to restate the claim a speaker is presenting and list the grounds, or reasons, the speaker is using to defend his or her claim. For example, a speaker might say, “Smoking should not be banned in the United States because individuals should have the right to choose whether or not they smoke. Banning smoking violates the Constitution because it takes away that right. Measures have already been taken to protect populations that are hurt by smoking, such as children or nonsmokers who are exposed to secondhand smoke. Additionally, the government depends on taxes from cigarette sales for revenue, so banning cigarettes would actually hurt the country’s finances.”

Students might diagram the speaker’s perspective as shown in figure I.5.

Figure I.5: Diagramming a speaker’s perspective.

Identifying and articulating the speaker’s perspective by diagramming his or her claim and grounds allows students to then identify biased language in each element of the argument.

Identify Biased Language

Once students have deconstructed an argument into its component parts, they can look more closely at the words themselves. When a speaker uses biased language, he or she strategically uses words with connotations that convey a hidden message or claim. This technique can make a claim seem innocuous or agreeable to an audience, even if the audience would otherwise disagree with it. Consider, for example, the excerpts from political speeches made by Barack Obama and Mitt Romney in table I.17 (page 36).

As shown, the student has highlighted words in each excerpt that have strong connotations, many of which are metaphorical, emotional, or grandiose. These include adjectives (such as worst, unequal, and American), nouns (such as crisis, opportunity, and corruption), and verbs (such as recover, collapsed, and inspire). Such words can be considered biased because they subtly express the opinion of each speaker.

Table I.17: Speeches by Barack Obama and Mitt Romney

Obama

Romney

Some of our most urgent challenges have revolved around an increasingly integrated global economy, and our efforts to recover from the worst economic crisis of our lifetime. Now, five years after the global economy collapsed, thanks to coordinated efforts by the countries here today, jobs are being created, global financial systems have stabilized, and people are being lifted out of poverty. But this progress is fragile and unequal, and we still have work to do together to assure that our citizens can access the opportunity they need to thrive in the 21st century.

An opportunity society produces pioneers and inventors; it inspires its citizens to build and create. And these people exert effort and take risks, and when they do so, they employ and lift others and create prosperity. . . . Even if we could afford the ever-expanding payments of an “entitlement society,” it is a fundamental corruption of the American spirit. The battle we face today is more than a fight over our budget, it’s a battle for America’s soul.

Source: “Text of Obama’s Speech at the U.N.” (2013) and “Anatomy of a Stump Speech” (2012).

For example, both speakers discussed the need for employment rates to rise and for Americans to have jobs. On its own, this sentiment is generally unobjectionable; most people would agree with it. However, each speaker used words that aligned with his personal views about government. Obama used the phrases lifted out of poverty and work to do together, which imply that government aid and cooperation among citizens improve the economy. He also used the words fragile and unequal to describe the economy, suggesting that it ought to be more regulated. Romney, on the other hand, used words like pioneers, inventors, effort, and risks, which imply that individual success and limited government produce economic growth.

Understand Appeals

Students can evaluate the biased language they have identified to understand another persuasive device that speakers use to communicate with audiences: appeals. Appeals are ways in which a speaker connects with his or her audience. Students need to know what appeals are so they do not confuse them with evidence. There are three types of appeals, as described by Marzano and Pickering (1997):

Personality—In this type of appeal, the speaker or writer tries to convince you to like him. He might use personal stories, act very interested in you, or be very congenial.

Tradition or accepted belief—In this type of appeal, the speaker or writer tries to convince you to “do the right thing.” Appealing to tradition involves referring to generally accepted beliefs or values to convince you to do something.

Rhetoric—In this type of appeal, the speaker or writer tries to convince you by using beautiful language, impressive phrases, clever idioms, and well-crafted gestures. Appealing through rhetoric attempts to impress the listener through powerfully constructed communication.

By making students aware of these types of appeals, teachers can help them understand that speakers and writers sometimes use techniques to convince that do not involve presenting evidence. In the previous example, Obama and Romney both used the pronoun we to appeal to personality; Obama said “we still have work to do together,” and Romney spoke of a “battle we face.” Each wanted the members of his audience to feel like he was on their side. They also appealed to tradition or accepted belief: Romney said that Obama’s economic views contributed to a “corruption of the American spirit.” Because the phrase American spirit typically refers to a shared set of beliefs among U.S. citizens, Romney’s statement implied that Obama is anti-American. Finally, the two speakers used beautiful or impressive phrases to appeal rhetorically to the audience. Romney likened the presidential election to a “battle for America’s soul,” and Obama called the recession “the worst economic crisis of our lifetime.”

Students should watch for these appeals and recognize that, while appeals can strengthen an argument, they are not the same as evidence for the argument. After students understand a speaker’s perspective, biased language, and appeals, they can consider the speaker’s motives for making the argument.

Examine Motives

The final step in evaluating persuasive rhetoric is to examine the speaker’s motives. Students can do this by asking the question, “What principles underlie the speaker’s logic?” To determine the logic behind a speaker’s perspective, students can make generalizations that highlight how the speaker is moving from his or her claim to grounds. For example, in the previous claim about banning smoking (see figure I.5, page 35), students might observe that the speaker is using logic such as the following to generate grounds for his or her claim:

People have the right to do certain things, even if those things might hurt them.

People should be allowed to do things that hurt themselves, but not other people.

It is okay for the government to make money off something that hurts people.

If a speaker’s logic was that people have the right to do certain things, even if those things might hurt them, students could infer that the principle of personal freedom is a primary consideration for the speaker. If a speaker’s logic involved the idea that people should not be allowed to do things that hurt other people, students might infer that while personal freedom is important to the speaker, it does not extend to situations where others might be hurt. Finally, from the speaker’s logic that it is okay for the government to make money off something that hurts people, students might conclude that the speaker is motivated by economic motives, rather than altruistic ones.

Identifying Errors in Reasoning

Students can analyze a claim or evidence and decide whether it is logical by identifying errors in reasoning. To guide students in identifying errors in reasoning, teachers can use the following process:

1.Explain the different types of errors.

2.Give students practice exercises for identifying errors.

The following sections expand on these steps.

Explain the Different Types of Errors

Over time, 20th century philosophers (Johnson-Laird, 1983; Johnson-Laird & Byrne, 1991; Toulmin, Rieke, & Janik, 1981) have identified a number of common—yet fallacious—lines of thinking and arguing. Marzano (2007) classified them into four main categories:

1.Faulty logic

2.Attack

3.Weak reference

4.Misinformation

Errors of faulty logic occur when someone uses incorrect premises or unsound reasoning to make claims or draw conclusions. To illustrate, consider the following claim: “Mark will probably want to watch the football game because he is a boy.” The underlying premise of this claim—that all boys enjoy watching sports—is incorrect. Some boys enjoy sports; others do not. Therefore, the claim makes an error of faulty logic. Attack refers to the use of irrelevant and often personal information to undermine an argument. For example, claiming that every argument a specific politician makes is necessarily flawed because he once had an affair is committing an error of attack. Using weak reference simply means that unreliable or untrustworthy sources were used, and misinformation means that information was incorrect or used incorrectly. Table I.18 lists specific logical errors and organizes them into the aforementioned four categories.

Table I.18: Four Categories of Errors in Reasoning

Type Error of	How the Error Can Occur
Faulty Logic	Contradiction: Presenting conflicting information
	Accident: Failing to recognize that an argument is based on an exception to a rule
	False Cause: Confusing a temporal (time) order of events with causality or oversimplifying the reasons behind an occurrence
	Begging the Question: Making a claim and then arguing for the claim by using statements that are simply the equivalent of the original claim
	Evading the Issue: Changing the topic to avoid addressing the issue
	Arguing From Ignorance: Arguing that a claim is justified simply because its opposite has not been proven true
	Composition: Asserting something about a whole that is really only true of its parts
	Division: Asserting something about all of the parts that is generally, but not always, true of the whole
Attack	Poisoning the Well: Being so completely committed to a position that you explain away absolutely everything that is offered in opposition to your position
	Arguing Against the Person: Rejecting a claim using derogatory facts (real or alleged) about the person who is making the claim
	Appealing to Force: Using threats to establish the validity of a claim
Weak Reference	Sources That Reflect Biases: Consistently accepting information that supports what we already believe to be true or consistently rejecting information that goes against what we believe to be true
	Sources That Lack Credibility: Using a source that is not reputable for a given topic
	Appealing to Authority: Invoking authority as the last word on an issue
	Appealing to the People: Attempting to justify a claim based on its popularity
	Appealing to Emotion: Using a sob story as proof for a claim
Misinformation	Confusing the Facts: Using information that seems to be factual but that has been changed in such a way that it is no longer accurate
	Misapplying a Concept or Generalization: Misunderstanding or wrongly applying a concept or generalization to support a claim

Source: Adapted from Marzano, 2007.

As Marzano and Heflebower (2012) pointed out, students will frequently encounter errors in reasoning on television, on the Internet, and in other forms of media. To argue effectively, students must be aware of various reasoning errors in order to evaluate their own thinking, as well as the claims of others. To develop this awareness, students can practice identifying the different kinds of errors.

Practice Exercises for Identifying Errors

To help students practice identifying errors of faulty logic, attack, weak reference, and misinformation, teachers can use exercises like those in figure I.6.

Figure I.6: Sample exercises for identifying errors in reasoning.

Teachers can ask students to identify items such as those in figure I.6 as errors of faulty logic, attack, weak reference, and misinformation. For a finer level of detail, students can identify the specific subtype of error (for example, contradiction, poisoning the well, appealing to authority, or confusing the facts).

Identifying Insufficient or Irrelevant Evidence

Identifying insufficient or irrelevant evidence involves analyzing evidence to decide whether it adequately supports a claim. Teachers can use three strategies to help students identify insufficient or irrelevant evidence:

1.Diagram backing.

2.Determine whether evidence is sufficient.

3.Determine whether evidence is relevant.

Here, we review each of these strategies.

Diagram Backing

Identifying which grounds each piece of evidence (backing) supports can help students identify whether the evidence is sufficient or relevant. For example, a speaker might state, “Schools should hire more teachers so that classes can be smaller. Smaller classes will allow teachers to know each student better and allow them to provide more individual instruction. Teachers would also have more energy and be able to design more engaging lessons, which would improve student achievement. Three studies have found that the achievement of students in smaller classes is higher than the achievement of students in larger classes. Also, a study found that teachers with fewer students were more confident, were more relaxed, and had better relationships with students. Finally, another study showed that the quality of teaching is higher in classrooms with fewer students.”

Students might diagram the speaker’s backing as shown in figure I.7.

Figure I.7: Diagramming backing.

Diagramming backing in this way allows students to deconstruct an argument into its component parts and develop a clearer understanding of the argument itself. Students can see how each element of the argument is connected to another element. This makes it easier for them to verify that all evidence is sufficient and relevant.

Determine Whether Evidence Is Sufficient

Evidence is sufficient when there is enough of it to provide ample support for a claim or grounds. If a person cannot reasonably agree with a claim given the evidence provided, then the evidence is probably insufficient. For instance, given the claim “Alaska is a more enjoyable place to live than Colorado,” a student might present the following grounds: “Because the state of Alaska is warmer on average than the state of Colorado.” To back up the grounds, the student says, “The average temperature of Juneau, Alaska, is 41.5 degrees, but the average temperature of Alamosa, Colorado, is only 40.8 degrees.” This backing is insufficient evidence for the grounds that Alaska is warmer than Colorado for a few reasons. For one, the student has only compared the average temperatures of two cities, one from each state, and one city may not be indicative of the climate of an entire state. Juneau is located in the southern part of Alaska and is one of the warmest places in the state. Compared to the average temperature of Barrow, Alaska, a northern city on the coast of the Arctic Ocean, Juneau’s average is a full thirty degrees warmer. In addition, Juneau’s average temperature of 41.5 degrees is only 1.5 degrees warmer than Alamosa’s average of 40.8.The difference seems too small to support a claim that one state is decidedly warmer than the other.

In the example diagrammed in figure I.7, a student might question whether the evidence provided is sufficient. In two cases, backing is represented by only one study. Also, citation information is not provided for any of the studies mentioned in the argument. This should lead students to investigate further into the validity of the evidence provided.

Determine Whether Evidence Is Relevant

Evidence is relevant when it directly relates to proving or disproving an element of the claim. When it does not, it can be considered irrelevant. Consider, for example, a criminal case in which someone is tried for murder. To convict a defendant of first-degree murder (as opposed to second-degree murder or manslaughter), a prosecutor must prove that the act was premeditated; in other words, she must prove that the defendant had planned the murder beforehand. In such a circumstance, pointing out that the defendant once stole a pack of gum from a drugstore is irrelevant evidence because it does not directly relate to proving that the murder was premeditated. On the other hand, eyewitness testimonies of the defendant making threats on the victim’s life would be considered relevant. These testimonies could contribute to proving that the murder was premeditated.

Perspective Taking

Students must learn to take multiple perspectives in order to argue effectively. In The Big Sort, journalist Bill Bishop (2008) explained that throughout the past half-century, Americans have gradually become more and more divided, increasingly socializing in communities filled with people who share their views:

The second half of the [twentieth] century brought social specialization, the displacement of mass culture by media, organizations, and associations that were both more segmented and more homogeneous. We now worship in churches among like-minded parishioners, or we change churches, maybe even denominations, to find such persons. We join volunteer groups with like-minded companions. We read and watch news that confirms our existing opinions. . . . Media, advertising, city economies—they’ve all segmented, specialized, and segregated. (pp. 37–38)

As a result of the “big sort,” diverse viewpoints rarely coalesce in one physical location. However, as Hess (2011) pointed out, this circumstance makes schools uniquely suited for controversial discussions. Classrooms in the United States “feature ideological, religious, and social class diversity among students” (Hess, 2011, p. 70) and therefore represent various perspectives on social issues. Walter Humes (2012) went one step further, asserting that schools have a duty “to extend, not simply confirm, experience, and this involves exposing youngsters to alternative ways of life and values different from those encountered at home” (p. 19).

In addition, the CCSS require that students be able to take multiple perspectives. The authors asserted that a college- and career-ready student will “actively seek to understand other perspectives and cultures through reading and listening” and is able to “communicate effectively with people of varied backgrounds” (NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, p. 7). Consequently, we have included perspective taking as a critical skill needed for effective argumentation.

Marzano and Heflebower (2012) stated that “in order to be able to see an issue from multiple perspectives, students must first be aware that different perspectives can and do exist” (p. 153). Thus, an important aspect of teaching students the skill of perspective taking is helping them understand that people can see the same thing in very different ways. We propose two ways to teach perspective taking:

1.Give examples of situations that demonstrate different perspectives.

2.Engage students in hands-on activities that highlight various perspectives of students in the class.

The following sections provide more information about each method.

Examples of Different Perspectives

The first way to introduce the concept of multiple perspectives involves providing examples of situations that lead to various points of view. For instance, optical illusions like the one presented in figure I.8 can be used to show how two different viewpoints can both be correct.

Figure I.8: Optical illusion of a swan or a squirrel.

Source: Fischer, 1968.

In this image, students might see a swan with its beak tucked into its chest or a squirrel nibbling on something it holds in its paws. Ask for volunteers to share the animal that they see in the image, and then help the entire class see it both ways.

Alternatively, a teacher might describe a scenario in which two people perceive the same situation differently based on different vantage points. For example, a person who is stranded on a desert island might be thrilled to see a boat drifting in the distance, while the person floating in the boat is relieved to finally see land.

Hands-On Activities

A second, more hands-on way to teach students that different people might have different perspectives is to put students in a situation that yields different perspectives within the class. For younger students, this can be as simple as taking class polls during daily activities. After reading Dr. Seuss’s The Cat in the Hat (1957/1985), for example, say, “Raise your hand if you would have let the Cat in the Hat into your house,” and then “Raise your hand if you would not have let the Cat in.” Point out that some students have one perspective, while other students have a different one, and that neither answer is right or wrong.

Older students can handle more complex activities that illuminate various perspectives among their classmates. One activity involves an imaginary scenario in which students pretend that they have been in a plane crash, leaving them stranded on a deserted island. Give students a list of characters (mechanic, hunter, plant biologist, doctor, and priest) and ask them to put the characters in order from most to least important as they try to escape the island. Students discuss their lists in pairs, then groups of four, and finally as a whole class. Guide the class to the conclusion that there is no correct or incorrect solution. Point out that students’ responses are influenced by their differing beliefs and values.

Communicating Responsibly

An important skill for argumentation is the capacity to interact thoughtfully and respectfully with others during whole-class and small-group discussions. According to Marzano and Heflebower (2012), communicating responsibly depends primarily on the ability to hold oneself accountable for the outcomes of interactions. In other words, students must learn to communicate their ideas and beliefs in a way that is simultaneously honest, confident, and respectful, which means they must take responsibility for their own speech. Students who communicate responsibly exhibit the following actions:

Speaking with a calm demeanor, including reasonable volume and tone of voice

Listening actively (sitting up, making eye contact, nodding, and asking questions) while others are speaking

Using disciplined and respectful word choice

Critiquing ideas instead of individuals

Not surprisingly, the authors of the CCSS considered the ability to “participate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborations with diverse partners” to be crucial to the development of college- and career-ready students (CCRA.SL.1; NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, p. 22). They list some variation of this skill as the first Speaking and Listening standard for students of every age, from kindergarten through high school.

Many others have stressed the importance of communicating responsibly for academic success (Campbell, 2008; Hess, 2002; Matsumura, Slater, & Crosson, 2008; Miller & Pedro, 2006; Reyes, Brackett, Rivers, White, & Salovey, 2012). Sarah Michaels, Mary Catherine O’Connor, and Megan Williams Hall (2010) outlined the following elements of responsible communication from the University of Pittsburgh’s Accountable Talk® program:

When classroom talk is accountable to the learning community, students listen to one another, not just obediently keeping quiet until it is their turn to take the floor, but attending carefully so that they can use and build on one another’s ideas. Students and teachers paraphrase and expand upon one another’s contributions. If speakers aren’t sure they understood what someone else said, they make an effort to clarify. They disagree respectfully, challenging a claim, not the person who made it. Students move the argument forward, sometimes with the teacher’s help, sometimes on their own. (pp. 2–3)

The aforementioned elements of communicating responsibly can meaningfully influence the success of a classroom debate or discussion. However, as Michaels and her colleagues (2010) pointed out, productive academic discussions do not “spring spontaneously from students’ mouths,” but instead require “time and effort to create” (p. 1). Consequently, we recommend modeling, teaching, and practicing responsible communication skills with students before playing the games in this book, particularly those that involve discussion between students, such as Claim Capers (page 173) or Convince the Crowd (page 185).

One way teachers can help students communicate responsibly is through modeling. Michaels and her colleagues (2010) wrote:

Teachers may press for clarification and explanation, require justifications of proposals and challenges, recognize and challenge misconceptions, demand evidence for claims and arguments, or interpret and “revoice” students’ statements. Over time, students can be expected to carry out each of these conversational “moves” themselves in peer discussions. (p. 1)

A second way to guide students toward communicating responsibly is through explicit teaching. We propose the following three steps for teaching responsible communication:

1.Establish norms for communicating responsibly in the classroom.

2.Provide student-friendly examples of responsible communication.

3.Practice and deepen students’ understanding of responsible communication.

Here, we provide detail about each step.

Establish Norms

Teachers should clearly establish classroom norms that support responsible communication and hold students accountable for upholding them. Humes (2012) pointed out that for students to engage successfully with controversial content, “the culture of the classroom has to be fair and open-minded” (p. 15), as well as trustworthy. He asserted that such an environment helps students feel safe and confident enough to speak up and express their own ideas. Moreover, the CCSS specifically require students to agree on and adhere to conversational norms. Second graders, for instance, are expected to “follow agreed-upon rules for discussions,” which include “gaining the floor in respectful ways, listening to others with care, [and] speaking one at a time about the topics and texts under discussion” (SL.2.1; NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, p. 23). Marzano (2007) similarly suggested that every student contribute to a list of rules for effective behavior in the classroom. Students then add their signatures to this class pledge and hold themselves and each other accountable for its tenets. In keeping with these recommendations, we suggest that teachers collaborate with students to create a list of norms for responsible communication during discussion.

For younger students, Michelle Cummings (2012) suggests using a traffic light metaphor to norm behavior before a discussion. The color red represents behaviors that need to stop during discussion (such as put-downs or blaming), yellow represents behaviors that students should be careful of (such as raising one’s voice), and green represents behaviors that help the discussion move forward (such as active listening or encouraging words). Teachers can even designate one student the “traffic signal,” whose job it is to hold up different colored pieces of paper (red, yellow, and green) during discussion to show classmates how they are doing.

Provide Examples

Teachers can also provide students with examples of responsible, assertive discussion. Douglas Fisher, Nancy Frey, and Carol Rothenberg (2008) recommended creating question prompts and sentence frames for communicating responsibly, printing them on table cards, and placing them on desks for students to use during collaboration. They state that these easily accessible reminders “reinforce the need for holding oneself (and each other) accountable for rigorous discussion” (p. 97). Table I.19 depicts various sentence frames and stems that students can use to develop responsible communication skills.

Teachers can also display question prompts and sentence frames prominently in the classroom or distribute them via handout while a debate is in session. This strategy is particularly useful for English learners (ELs), but all students can learn from the examples, even those with lots of argumentation experience.

Table I.19: Sentence Frames and Stems for Communicating Responsibly

Clarifying	Connecting
How is this relevant to your point? Can you explain what you mean? So what you’re saying is .	I want to say more about what said about . I’d like to add . I noticed that . What said reminded me of .
Agreeing	Disagreeing
I agree with because . I think made a great point about . Yes, and furthermore . Although we still disagree on the claim overall, it seems to me that we can agree on .	I disagree with because . Couldn’t it also be that ? I see why might say that, but . While I think had a point that , I disagree with the part where he/she said . It seems to me that committed an error in reasoning when he/she said .
Changing the Subject	Taking Responsibility
It seems to me that we’re spending a lot of time discussing , when maybe we should be discussing . I’d like to change the subject to . Something I think the other side has not addressed is .	I must have miscommunicated my point earlier; I apologize. What I intended to say was . Earlier, I neglected to point out . I’m sorry, I misunderstood you. I thought you meant . You’re right. Those words were hurtful and uncalled for. I shouldn’t have said that.

Source: Adapted from Michaels et al., 2010.

Practice and Deepen Understanding

Finally, students practice and deepen their understanding of responsible communication. One simple and engaging method is to analyze the behavior of prominent debaters in the media. Screen clips from televised presidential debates or arguments between political pundits on programs such as CNN’s Crossfire. Alternatively, utilize the resources that Intelligence Squared—an organization that conducts Oxford-style debates—provides on its website (http://intelligencesquaredus.org). Show your class a video of a debate, download an NPR radio podcast of one, or read, annotate, and discuss a debate transcript. Ask students to identify instances of strong and weak decorum for debate as they watch, listen, or read. Students can also complete reflection guides that contain questions, such as “What are three examples of respectful disagreement used in this clip?” or “What did it look and sound like when a debater lost control of his or her emotions? How did this affect your opinion of the debater?” Use activities like this to facilitate whole-class or small-group discussions with your students about responsible communication.

How to Use This Book

The activities and games in this book fuse two key elements of effective engagement—academic games and friendly controversy—to help students practice argumentation skills outlined in the CCSS. According to over sixty studies conducted by Marzano Research Laboratory, the use of academic games in the classroom is associated with an average gain of 20 percentile points in student achievement (Haystead & Marzano, 2009). Furthermore, a study by Nancy Lowry and David Johnson (1981) demonstrated that imbuing a friendly sense of controversy into lessons leads to more curiosity, higher achievement, and more positive attitudes regarding the subject matter.

While encouraging friendly controversy, take care to avoid placing inordinate pressure on winning. Research shows that mild pressure can help people focus (Cahill, Gorski, & Le, 2003; Shors, Weiss, & Thompson, 1992; Van Honk et al., 2003) but too much pressure can have negative consequences (Ito, Larsen, Smith, & Cacioppo, 2002; Roozendaal, 2003). For example, students who feel overly compelled to win a game can be embarrassed if they lose (Epstein & Harackiewicz, 1992; Moriarty, Douglas, Punch, & Hattie, 1995; Reeve & Deci, 1996).

Fortunately, students do not need to be motivated by external pressures, prizes, or rewards to enjoy academic games. Thomas Good and Jere Brophy (2003) discussed the engaging elements of competition for its own sake:

The opportunity to compete can add excitement to classroom activities, whether the competition is for prizes or merely for the satisfaction of winning. Competition may be either individual (students compete against everyone else) or group (students are divided into teams that compete with one another). (p. 227)

Marzano (2007) calls this type of fun, low-stakes sparring inconsequential competition because it has no bearing on a student’s grade or status in the class.

This book contains ten argumentation activities and games for classroom use:

1.I Think, I Like, I Believe

2.Opinion Scoot

3.Fishing for Facts

4.Argument Relay

5.Rapid Fire

6.Which One Doesn’t Belong?

7.Text Evidence Bingo

8.Rhetoric Memory

9.Claim Capers

10.Convince the Crowd

Activities and games are ordered by grade level, with those for younger students in earlier chapters and those for older students in later chapters. Each one involves a different combination of CCSS-based argumentation skills. The activities and games at the beginning of the book require more basic skills (such as distinguishing fact from opinion and presenting and supporting claims) than those at the end. For easy reference, the first page of each game or activity lists the appropriate age group, the argumentation skills involved, and materials needed. Teachers can also use tables I.2 (page 5) and I.3 (page 15) to see which activities and games align to specific argumentation standards. Locate the standards that correspond to your grade level in table I.2, take note of the skills associated with the standards, and choose activities and games from table I.3 that allow students to practice those skills.

Throughout the book, you will also notice teacher tips for executing each game. These tips are indicated by the light bulb icon to the left. Refer to these tips for useful hints regarding variations in gameplay and setup, solutions to potential pitfalls, and differentiation strategies to meet the needs of all students.

Remember that the activities and games are meant not to replace direct instruction in argumentation, but to provide different ways to practice and develop argumentation skills. Feel free to adapt or supplement to suit the requirements of your school, curriculum, and students. Finally—and most importantly—have fun!