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In relation to the high demands of modern sports, psychological resilience is a crucial factor that ensures the capacity of an athlete to perform under pressure and in competitive situations. Recent developments in sports pedagogy and sports psychology confirm that achievement in a sportsperson is not solely dependent on physical fitness and skill but also on the ability to control concentration, emotional states, and motivation levels even in contexts of high uncertainty and competition pressure [4, 5].In sports such as swimming, mental toughness assumes even greater significance since the sportsperson is competing alone, in a closely controlled competitive environment, and needs to be at the highest level of concentration for a prolonged length of time.

Psychological resilience is a multifaceted integrative personality trait with cognitive, emotional, and behavioral facets that allows a person to maintain performance, emotional stability, and control of the situation in the face of stress. The phenomenon is generally examined within the scientific literature within the framework of various theoretical perspectives, including psychological adaptation theory, cognitive-behavioral theory, and stress regulation theories. These theories examine the stress resistance processes, including coping, cognitive restructuring, and emotional regulation.

The theory of psychological adaptation (Selye) defines stress as a nonspecific response of the body to external or internal demands, identifying three key stages of adaptation: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion (fig. 1).

Figure 1. Stages of stress adaptation according to H. Selye

On this basis, the body first employs its resources to combat the stressor (alarm stage), subsequently attempts to equalize physiological and psychological levels to maintain effective functioning (stage of resistance). However, with prolonged or excess exposure to the stress factor, it may go into a state of exhaustion with reduced adaptive capacity, physical and emotional burnout [6]. Psychologically, stress adaptation is a matter of learning tolerance of uncertainty, self-regulatory capacities, and coping abilities that allow people to remain productive even in the face of psycho-emotional stress.

This theory heavily emphasizes a model of adaptation with resources where physical, cognitive, and emotional reserve sufficiency provides the foundation of resilience. Practically, this means that one must balance the stress loads, accomplish recovery, and develop adaptive mechanisms to enhance resistance to chronic stress. The application of the theory of psychological adaptation in education and professional activities allows for the development of burnout prevention strategies, the programming of workload cycles, and the formation of individual stress management mechanisms that contribute to increased efficiency and long-term maintenance of performance.

The cognitive-behavioral theory (Lazarus & Folkman) examines psychological resilience through the interaction of cognitive processes and behavioral responses in stressful conditions [7]. The percepti¸on of a stressful situation is determined by a system of automatic thoughts that arise under the influence of previously formed beliefs. These thoughts can be either adaptive or destructive, shaping the individual’s subsequent response to a stressful stimulus (fig. 2).

Figure 2. The influence of automatic thoughts and beliefs on a person’s emotional, physiological, and behavioral reaction

When irrational beliefs are present (e.g., catastrophizing the incident, low self-esteem), automatic thoughts will yield a stress-inducing response, fostering greater anxiety and lower adaptability. In contrast, rational beliefs and positive cognitive style ensure an adaptive redefinition of the incident, control over emotional state, and reduced negative impact of stress. Therefore, cognitive-behavioral theory considers identification and restructuring automatic thoughts crucial in stress resilience development.

The stress regulation concept (J. Gross) examines the management of stress responses through the mechanism of emotional regulation, which involves consciously influencing cognitive, physiological, and behavioral reactions in response to a stressful situation (fig. 3).

Figure 3. Types of emotional stress regulation according to J. Gross

According to this concept, an individual can regulate their state by altering the perception of a stressor, their reaction to it, and selecting adaptive coping mechanisms [8]. Gross identifies two general categories of emotion regulation: antecedent-focused stress regulation (regulation of the emotional response before the stress has begun, e.g., cognitive reappraisal of the situation) and response-focused stress regulation (reduction of the strength of an already formed emotional response, e.g., relaxation or breathing exercises).

The most significant part of this concept is cognitive reappraisal, by which an individual views a stressor not as threatening but rather as a motivational stimulus or a challenge. By doing so, it minimizes the negative impact of anxiety and fear.

The theories researched – cognitive-behavioral theory, theory of psychological adaptation, and model of regulation of emotional stress – point to the importance of stress state regulation in sports. They demonstrate that successful adaptation to competition pressure relies not only on physiological factors but also on the extent to which a sportsman can consciously manage his/her response, modify the perception of stressful experience, and use effective coping strategies.

The other essential psychological resilience characteristic of the athlete includes his ability to self-regulate, including states of emotions management, anxiety and stress management reactions, and adapting to different competitive situations. Self-regulation is particularly important in swimming since swimmers must maintain high levels of concentration and psychophysiological readiness under rigorous competitive pressure [9]. Competitors who have good self-regulation are found to have more stable performance, are less susceptible to pre-competition anxiety, and recover more quickly after poor performances.

Together with self-regulation, an important component of psychological resilience is resistance to stress – the ability of an athlete to function under heavy psycho-emotional load. It is characterized by the correspondence between subjective demands of the situation and the resources the individual possesses. In sports, particularly in swimming, this correspondence is highly significant since the players are not only required to endure physical stress but also be prepared mentally to face adversity.

But still another crucial component of psychological resilience is the degree of cognitive control – the ability of an athlete to manage his thoughts, focus on the most crucial performance characteristics, and remain out of the damage inflicted by self-destructive thinking. In swimming, where competition occurs without haptic and vocal feedback, cognitive control is responsible for sustaining the best possible activity level, timely decision-making, and efficient energy resource allocation. People with a high level of cognitive control are less susceptible to a “slowing effect” in response to stress stimuli and are more effective when performing complex activities.

Psychological resilience in sports, thus, is a multi-level and intricate construct embracing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes that enable the sportspersons to adapt to stressors. In swimming, this question is particularly topical, for the sport is characterized by high self-regulation, stress tolerance, and cognitive control.

There are numerous conceptual approaches to psychological research on the phenomenon of psychological resilience in the scientific literature, each of which interprets this process within the system of different theoretical and methodological paradigms. Psychological resilience is considered by scientific schools to be a complex construct that includes cognitive, emotional, and behavioral mechanisms of adaptation to stressors.

The most structured concepts include the cognitive-behavioral model of stress resilience, the biopsychosocial model, and the psychoregulation model, each of which explains the personality adaptation mechanisms to stress from different theoretical and methodological standpoints.

As previously mentioned, the cognitive-behavioral model of stress resilience, proposed by R. Lazarus and S. Folkman, emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal and the use of adaptive strategies in forming an effective response to stressful situations. Moving toward more comprehensive approaches, it is worth noting that the biopsychosocial model (Engel) views psychological resilience as a result of the interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors (fig. 4) [10].

Figure 4. Factors of psychological resilience

Biological factors are associated with genetic predisposition to stress resistance, individual characteristics of the nervous system, and the level of physical fitness. They determine the body’s fundamental ability to mobilize under stress, the recovery rate after exertion, and the physiological mechanisms of self-regulation. Psychological resilience formation relies mostly on innate characteristics of the nervous system, such as excitability level, lability, and information processing speed.

Psychological factors entail individual self-regulation competencies, motivation levels, personality, and cognitive styles. They establish the emotional regulation, stress tolerance, and adjustment to uncertainty of a sports person. Players with greater intrinsic motivation and greater ability for cognitive restructuring and reflection show more stable performance under pressure in competition. Psychological training is geared towards developing conscious coping abilities, pre-competition nervousness management, and maintaining self-confidence.

Social factors are linked to the external environment in which an athlete develops. Support from the coach, family, team, and sports community plays a crucial role. Cooperation among team members, the proper coaching style, and a good microclimate are the stimuli for stress resilience and higher self-esteem. In contrast, too much pressure from the coach or assertive criticism can lead to heightened anxiety and emotional exhaustion. Social determinants also include the role of sports culture, club or federation custom, that influence an athlete’s preparedness to overcome a difficult situation and view stressful situations.

Modern research in the field of sports psychology also emphasizes the psychoregulation model proposed by Y. Hanin [11]. According to this model, each athlete has an Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF), within which they demonstrate their best performance (fig. 5).

Figure 5. Individual zone of optimal functioning

This model suggests that each athlete has a unique level of arousal at which they perform at their best.

The horizontal axis represents the arousal level, ranging from low to high. The vertical axis categorizes athletes into three groups based on their IZOF:

• Athlete 1 (low IZOF) – athletes with a low optimal arousal level, who perform best at low activation levels. When their arousal level is high, their performance declines.

• Athlete 2 (moderate IZOF) – athletes with a moderate arousal level, who require a medium activation level to achieve optimal performance.

• Athlete 3 (high IZOF) – athletes for whom a high arousal level is optimal, while low activation leads to a decline in performance.

The red zones on the diagram represent the range of optimal functioning for each athlete. They indicate that the ideal arousal level for peak performance varies among athletes.

In this model, self-regulation of emotional states is the most significant feature. A player must be able to control the level of arousal so that he or she remains in their individual zone of best functioning. As illustration, low IZOF athletes would use relaxation and breathing capabilities to avoid being too highly aroused, and high IZOF athletes would respond positively to stimuli that arouse, like warm-up exercises using dynamics and methods increasing energy for readying the requisite level of competitiveness and motivation. This model highlights the importance of a personalized approach to managing emotional states and emphasizes individual differences in the optimal arousal level required to achieve peak athletic performance.

Swimming is an individual sport with particular demands on the psychophysiological status of an athlete [12]. As stated earlier, unlike game sports and team sports where players influence one another and modify their action under fluctuating conditions, swimming is a solo and cyclical activity. This influences the mode of psychological tension in competition and training and calls for a considerable amount of self-regulation, stress resistance, and cognitive regulation.

One of the most significant psychological determinants of success in a swimmer is the ability to concentrate and to manage attention. Swimming requires exact control of the technique of movement, coordination, and rhythmic organization of strokes, which calls for selective attention – the ability to focus on what is important and to disregard what is unimportant in a way that maintains concentration on tactical and technical aspects of performance. Since sensory isolation occurs in the water medium, where the swimmer has minimal exposure to audiovisual information, there has to be high internal concentration and body sensitivity.

The other important factor is emotional regulation and stress resilience. Like in any other sport, swimming is also associated with serious psychological stress, such as competitive anxiety, necessity to strictly adhere to time frames, and maximal physical effort. Nevertheless, unlike team sports athletes, who can adjust to extrinsic conditions and change their strategy in the process of competition, a swimmer’s performance is based on pre-programmed motor activity. This elevates the role of pre-competition psychological preparation. A sportsman ought to develop an optimal level of activation in advance, avoiding both over-arousal, as a result of which an individual may make mistakes at the start, and under-mobilization, when the reaction and movement force speed reduce.

The psychology of the process of training, which is characterized by intensive monotony and recurring movements, also exerts a strong influence on the psychological state of swimmers. It may cause intellectual and emotional fatigue, reduced motivation, and an increased level of psychological burnout. Therefore, the development of intrinsic motivation is highly significant, both for achievement of competition success and for an understanding of the importance of the process of training as such. The aquatic environment has certain circumstances where the sportspersons undergo bodily discomfort, hypoxia, and proprioceptive sensitivity change and hence need to manage their physiological and affective responses in the right manner.

The psychological aspect of competition preparation must be given a special emphasis since not only must the athlete get into best physical shape but also mentally practice how to deal with stress, rehearse successful performances, and reach the optimal confidence level. Compared to team sports, where strategy can be adjusted during the game, swimming contains a considerable psychological aspect, under which the players can practice in advance their order of operation and reduce uncertainty before the event begins.

Hence, psychological resilience in sport, including swimming, is a complex, multi-level process of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral adaptation strategies to stressors. Its emergence is conditioned by a cluster of biological, psychological, and social factors. Current scientific theories, such as cognitive-behavioral theory of stress resistance, theory of psychological adaptation, the theory of stress regulation, and the IZOF model of psychoregulation, explain mechanisms of stress resistance for formation in sportsmen, with special focus on cognitive appraisal of stress, self-strategies of stress coping, and emotional regulation.

Psychological resilience is especially important in swimming due to high sensory isolation, the necessity to precisely control technique and movement rhythm, and strong physical and psychological tension. One of the most important factors is emotional regulation, enabling sportsmen and women to achieve the optimal level of activation and stress acclimatization at competitions. Competition preparation includes learning mental techniques for anxiety regulation, effective visualization of performance, and self-confidence enhancers.

Psychological resilience development in swimmers requires an integrated training system that unites physiological and technical training with intensive cognitive self-regulation skills development. This helps athletes effectively cope with competitive pressure, retain concentration, and maintain high motivational levels throughout all stages of their sporting life.