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1 1 Brian Farrell contributed substantially to the research and updates reflected in this edition. Please reflect his contribution in any direct citation to this chapter.

2 1 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 1999 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 38. The 2010 number comparing the richest countries as a group with the poorest countries as a group is from the World Development Indicators database, World Bank, July 1, 2011, at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf (accessed July 2015).

3 2 UNDP, Human Development Report 1999, p. 38. The 2010 number comparing the richest countries as a group with the poorest countries as a group is from the World Development Indicators database, World Bank, July 1, 2011, at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf (accessed July 2015).

4 3 According to the World Bank, rich countries had about USD $51,500,000 million while low income countries had approximately USD $550,000 million. World Development Indicators database, December 17, 2018 revision, at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?end=2017&start=2017 (accessed December 2018).

5 4 Bruce Scott, “The Great Divide in the Global Village,” Foreign Affairs (January/February 2001), pp. 162–3.

6 5 According to the World Bank, low‐and‐middle income countries had about USD $6,900 gross national income per capita, (2011 Purchase Power Parity) in 2009 and USD $10,843 in 2017. World Development Indicators database, World Bank, at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.PP.CD?start=2009 (accessed December 2018).

7 6 C.K. “The gap between poor and rich neighbourhoods is growing” The Economist (November 13, 2018) at https://www.economist.com/democracy‐in‐america/2018/11/13/the‐gap‐between‐poor‐and‐rich‐neighbourhoods‐is‐growing (accessed December 2018).

8 7 Ibid.

9 8 World Bank Development Indicators Database, April 19, 2010 revision.

10 9 Alex Whiting, “Richest 62 People Own Same as Half of World’s Population: Oxfam,” Reuters (January 18, 2016) at https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN0UW0DQ?fbclid=IwAR3HHRmVm6CJLRHbqAMQN7372gzokSnq‐9TAJ9PHYVXEL0Bnxp6ZBVOvV6E (accessed December 2018).

11 10 International Labour Organization, Global Wage Report 2014/2015: Wages and Income Inequality, section 7.2, p. 23, at http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—dgreports/—dcomm/—publ/documents/publication/wcms:324678.pdf (accessed July 2015).

12 11 Christopher Ingraham “The Richest 1 Percent Now Owns more of the Country’s Wealth than at any Time in the past 50 Years” The Washington Post (December 6, 2017) at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/12/06/the‐richest‐1‐percent‐now‐owns‐more‐of‐the‐countrys‐wealth‐than‐at‐any‐time‐in‐the‐past‐50‐years/ (accessed December 2018).

13 12 Porsha Pan “Hurun Report Releases China Rich List 2017 in Association with 36G” The Hurun Research Institute (October 12, 2017) at http://www.hurun.net/EN/Article/Details?num=5A320E03FD31 (accessed December 2018).

14 13 Heather Long and Leslie Shapiro. “Does $60,000 make you Middle‐class or Wealthy on Planet Earth?” The Washington Post (August 20, 2018) at https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2018/08/20/does‐make‐you‐middle‐class‐or‐wealthy‐planet‐earth/ (accessed December 2018).

15 14 World Bank Development Indicators Database, December 17, 2018 revision.

16 15 China increased its per capita GDP about tenfold from $440 in 1980 to $4,475 in 2002 (in international prices), while India’s per capita GDP rose from $670 in 1980 to $2,570 in 2002. World Bank, World Development Report 2005 (New York: World Bank and Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 27.

17 16 United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2010 (New York: United Nations, 2010), p. 6.

18 17 Ibid., p. 7.

19 18 United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2014, p. 4, at http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2014%20MDG%20report/MDG%202014%20English%20web.pdf (accessed July 2015).

20 19 The World Bank “Decline of Global Extreme Poverty Continues but Has Slowed: World Bank” (September 19, 2018) at https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press‐release/2018/09/19/decline‐of‐global‐extreme‐poverty‐continues‐but‐has‐slowed‐world‐bank ( “Over the last 25 years, more than a billion people have lifted themselves out of extreme poverty, and the global poverty rate is now lower than it has ever been in recorded history. This is one of the greatest human achievements of our time.”).

21 20 “Global Poverty: A Fall to Cheer”, The Economist, (March 3, 2012), at http://www.economist.com/node/21548963 (accessed July 2015).

22 21 United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2010, p. 7

23 22 The World Bank “Poverty & Equity Data Portal” at http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/country/CHN (accessed December 2018).

24 23 UNDP, Human Development Report 2004 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 129.

25 24 United Nations, “World Economic Situation and Prospects 2015, Update as of mid‐2015*” (May 19, 2015) at http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wesp/wesp_archive/2015wesp_myu_en.pdf (accessed December 2018).

26 25 United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2014, p. 4, at http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2014%20MDG%20report/MDG%202014%20English%20web.pdf (accessed July 2015).

27 26 Ibid., pp. 5, 12.

28 27 World Health Organization, “Global hunger continues to rise, new UN report says 821 million people now hungry and over 150 million children stunted, putting hunger eradication goal at risk,” (September 11, 2018) at https://www.who.int/news‐room/detail/11‐09‐2018‐global‐hunger‐continues‐to‐rise‐‐‐new‐un‐report‐says (accessed December 2018).

29 28 World Bank, World Development Report 2014: Risk and Opportunity (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2014), p. 5.

30 29 United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2014, pp. 4–5; UN Department of Social and Economic Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, at http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm; World Bank, “Energy,” at http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy (both accessed July 2015); World Bank, World Development Report 2010 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2010), p. xx.

31 30 United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2014, pp. 4–5; UN Department of Social and Economic Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, at http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm; World Bank, “Energy,” at http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy (both accessed July 2015); World Bank, World Development Report 2010 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2010), p. xx.

32 31 World Development Indicators database, December 17, 2018 revision at http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povDuplicateWB.aspx (accessed December 2018).

33 32 UNDP, Human Development Report 2004, p. 132.

34 33 The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, “Rural‐Urban Disparities and Dynamics and the Millennium Development Goals,” Global Monitoring Report 2013 (2013) at https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934‐1327948020811/8401693‐1355753354515/8980448‐1366123749799/GMR_2013_Full_Report.pdf p85 (accessed December 2018).

35 34 UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), “Non‐Tariff Measures to Trade: Economic and Policy Issues for Developing Countries” (2013), pp. vii–viii, at http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ditctab20121_en.pdf (accessed July 2015).

36 35 Ibid.

37 36 See, e.g., the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act webpage at http://www.recovery.gov/arra/About/Pages/The_Act.aspx (accessed July 2015).

38 37 This framework derives from Alan Wolfe’s classification of the three main views of development. He presented his ideas in a paper titled “Three Paths to Development: Market, State, and Civil Society,” which was prepared for the International Meeting of Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) and United Nations System Agencies held in 1991 in Rio de Janeiro. Some of his views on this subject are contained in his book Whose Keeper? Social Science and Moral Obligation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). In this book, we have adapted Wolfe’s framework as Market, State, and a Blended Approach.

39 38 Censuses in Brazil have revealed that the percentage of national income going to the top 10 percent of the population was 40 percent in 1960, 47 percent in 1970, and 51 percent in 1980. During the same period the poorest 50 percent of the population received 17 percent of the national income in 1960, 15 percent in 1970, and 13 percent in 1980. Thomas E. Skidmore and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America, 2nd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 180. In Latin America as a whole in the 1980s the poorest 10 percent suffered a 15 percent drop in their share of income. See UNDP, Human Development Report 1999, p. 39.

40 39 For a fuller discussion of dependency theory see Bruce Russett and Harvey Starr, World Politics: The Menu for Choice, 2nd edn (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1985), ch. 16; and John T. Rourke, International Politics on the World Stage, 7th edn (New York: Dushkin/McGraw‐Hill, 1999), p. 400.

41 40 “Global 500,” Fortune Magazine (July 20, 2009). Stacy VanDeveer, “Consuming Environments: Options and Choices for 21st Century Citizens,” in Beyond Rio+20: Governance for a Green Economy (Boston: Boston University, 2011), pp. 43–51.

42 41 “Global 500,” Fortune Data Store (2018) at http://fortune.com/global500/list/filtered?non‐us‐cos‐y‐n=true (accessed December 2018). “FAQ: How many U.S. companies are in the FORTUNE Global 500 List? There are approximately 130 U.S. companies that appear in the FORTUNE Global 500 List. Most of these companies also appear in the FORTUNE 500 List.”

43 42 While it does not deal with the areas of the world described as “developing nations,” Victoria de Grazia’s Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance through 20th Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005) explores how US political and commercial power combined to create and export new consumer habits in Europe, and is an enlightening look at how cultural, commercial, and economic power can interact.

44 43 Frederic S. Pearson and J. Martin Rochester, International Relations: The Global Condition in the Twenty‐First Century, 4th edn (New York: Random House, 1998), p. 499.

45 44 See, e.g., H. Dunning, “Governments and the Macro‐Organization of Economic Activity: An Historical and Spatial Perspective,” Review of International Political Economy, 4 (1) (1997), p. 45.

46 45 See, e.g., David Levi‐Faur, “Friedrich List and the Political Economy of the Nation‐State,” Review of International Political Economy, 4 (1) (1997), pp. 154–78.

47 46 Marcus Noland, “Six Markets to Watch: South Korea,” Foreign Affairs (January/February 2014), at https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/south‐korea/2013‐12‐06/six‐markets‐watch‐south‐korea (accessed July World Trade Statistical Review 2018, p27, at https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2018_e/wts2018_e.pdf (accessed December 2018).

48 47 For a good discussion of the potential for globalization doing good or harm see “Overview: Globalization with a Human Face,” in UNDP, Human Development Report 1999, pp. 1–13.

49 48 Peter F. Drucker, “Trade Lessons from the World Economy,” Foreign Affairs (January/February 1994), p. 104.

50 49 UNDP, Human Development Report 2003 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 6. For example, many types of crime dropped in the United States during its recent long period of economic growth, and during the decade of the 1990s “the number of hungry people [in the world] fell by nearly 20 million.

51 50 World Bank, World Development Report 2005, p. 31.

52 51 World Bank data, “Internet Users (per 100 people),” at http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.P2 (accessed July 2015).

53 52 Roberto A. Ferdman, “4.4 Billion People around the World still don’t have Internet. Here’s Where they Live,” The Washington Post (October 2, 2014), at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/10/02/4‐4‐billion‐people‐around‐the‐world‐still‐dont‐have‐internet‐heres‐where‐they‐live/ (accessed January 2020)

54 53 World Trade Organization, Report shows sharp rise in the coverage of trade‐restrictive measures from WTO members (December 11, 2018), at https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news18_e/trdev_11dec18_e.htm (accessed December 2018).

55 54 Katherine Bennhold, “Love of Leisure, and Europe’s Reasons,” New York Times (July 29, 2004), p.A8.

56 55 Jeffrey Sachs, Andrew Mellinger, and John Gallup, “The Geography of Poverty and Wealth,” Scientific American, 284 (March 2001), p. 74.

57 56 Most of the analysis on the relationship between geography and wealth and poverty is taken from Ibid., pp. 70–5; and Ricardo Hausmann, “Prisoners of Geography,” Foreign Affairs (January/February 2001), pp. 45–53.

58 57 Hausmann, “Prisoners of Geography,” p. 53.

59 58 UNDP, Human Development Report 1999, p. 2.