Читать книгу Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence - Laura E. Levine - Страница 263

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The germinal stage is illustrated in this diagram. The table below describes the illustration at each stage.

The caption below the image reads, in the week following the fertilization of the ovum, the newly formed zygote travels down the fallopian tube, and the developing blastocyst implants in the lining of the uterus.

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A color illustration of a magnified blastocyst is seen here. In the background, an egg being fertilized by a sperm is seen. A zygote with many cells enclosed in a transparent sac is seen in front. A blastocyst with many cells enclosed in a clear sack with a row of cells forming a barrier on the inner wall is seen.

In the foreground, a blastocyst is seen with a clearly defined inner cell mass in a transparent sac and the layer of inner cells that form a barrier called the trophoblast is also seen.

The caption below the image reads, As the zygote replicates and divides, a solid ball of cells forms. The cells fold over themselves and form a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst, which contains the inner cell mass (which becomes the embryo) and an outer ring of cells called the trophoblast (which becomes the support system for the pregnancy).

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The differentiation of the inner cell mass is illustrated here. The inner Endoderm is surrounded by the Mesoderm, and an Ectoderm on top. A darker bean-shaped center is seen on the top part of the Endoderm. A small circle is seen on top of the bean-shaped center in the Mesoderm. This circle is connected to the Ectoderm by a triangle-shaped structure without the top. There is a dip in the Ectoderm at this point.

Each layer develops into different parts of the body and are listed below.

Ectoderm develops into skin, sense, organs, brain, and spinal cord.

Mesoderm develops into muscles, blood, bones, and circulatory system.

Endoderm develops into respiratory, system, digestive system, liver, and pancreas.

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An illustration of a baby in utero as well as a magnified part of the placenta is shown. The image on the left shows a cross section of a baby in vitro. The baby is seen encased in the Amnion, filled with Amniotic fluid. It is attached to the Amnion through the umbilical cord. A Yolk sac is also seen outside the Amnion but inside the Chorion, The umbilical cord connects all the layers and is seen attached to the placenta through branch-like protrusions called Chorionic villi. The placenta that carries the baby is in the uterus of the mother.

A magnified part of where the umbilical cord connects to the placenta is seen on the right. The Chorion contain the umbilical vein and artery that branch out into the placenta as Chorionic villi. The placenta wall contain uterine arteries and veins. Maternal blood supply is seen in the intervillus space.

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The main embryonic period is the time period between weeks 3 and 8. The fetal period is between weeks 9 and 38. Weeks 1 and 2 are the period of dividing zygote, implantation, and bilaminar embryo. While the zygote is not susceptible to teratogenesis in this period, death of embryo and spontaneous abortion are common in this period.

Major congenital anomalies can occur between weeks 3 and 9 and functional defects and minor anomalies can occur from week 9 to 38.

The caption below the figure reads, This figure shows parts of the body that are most vulnerable to the effects of teratogens at specific times throughout the pregnancy. Note the increased vulnerability of all systems early in the pregnancy.

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An illustration showing the effects of prenatal drug exposure. The image shows a baby in a circle with various drugs and their effects listed around the image. The drugs and their effects are listed below.

Opiates cause,

 Neonatal abstinence syndrome.

 Preterm birth and obstetric complications.

 Attenuated myelination in infants.

 Respiratory insufficiency.

 Heart defects.

 Reduced growth.

 Deficits in cognitive and motor ability.

 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

 Lower IQ.

 Behavioral problems.

Cannabinoids cause,

 Decreased growth.

 Deficits in attention.

 Increased impulsivity.

 Long-term deficits in executive function.

 Depression diagnosis.

 Future substance use.

Caffeine causes,

 Increased risk of growth restriction and prematurity (at high levels).

 Possible decrease in executive function at school age.

Psychostimulants cause,

 Preterm labor.

 Short- and long-term growth deficits.

 Cardiac and cardiovascular anomalies.

 Cranial and brain abnormalities.

 Behavior problems.

 Emotional and social effects.

 Deficits in attention, memory and motivation.

 Anxious/depressed behaviors and symptoms.

 Aggression and delinquent behavior.

Alcohol causes,

 Prematurity and spontaneous abortion.

 Limb and facial development.

 Reduced growth.

 Cognitive delays and impairments.

 Reduced brain volumes.

 Abnormalities in the corpus callosum.

 Deficits in attention, memory, verbal fluency, executive functioning, reaction times, and motor learning.

Tobacco causes,

 Decreased birthweight.

 Altered response to stimuli.

 Poorer academic achievement.

 Poorer cognition.

 Attention deficits and hyperactivity.

 Adolescent aggression.

 Oppositional defiance issues.

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This illustration shows three stages of labor.

In stage one titled Dilation, the baby in the womb is seen with its head at the cervix with a ruptured amniotic sack. The baby has its arms crossed over its chest. Its feet are crossed and near the umbilical cord next to its leg.

Stage two titled Delivery shows the baby’s head coming out of the cervix and the placenta also disengaging from the uterine wall.

In stage three titled Expulsion of Placenta, the placenta which is still attached to the umbilical cord is partially disengaged from the uterine wall and will be delivered through the cervix as well.

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A bar graph showing the rates of cesarean births among different ethnicities in 2009, 2013 and 2014 with the years 2009, 2013 and 2014 on the x axis and the percentage of cesarean births on the y axis. The table below shows the approximate rates of cesarean births for each ethnicity.

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The approach to childcare in two communities is contrasted by these two images.

On the left is an image of a woman in a house made of bamboo thatched roof and floor, holds her baby while two other women and a man look on. One of the women is holding a toddler in her lap. A bare chested man seated in front of them, looks at them.

In contrast, a poster on the right reads No Strollers, No High Chairs, No Booster Chairs, Children crying or making loud noises are a distraction to other diners, and as such are not allowed in the dining room.

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A stacked bar graph showing the division of labor between U.S. mothers and fathers in the years 1965 and 2011. The x axis shows the distribution among mothers and fathers in 1965 and in 2011. The y axis shows the average number of hours per week. The table below shows the average number of hours per week for both mothers and fathers spent on paid work, housework and child care.

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A bar graph showing a cross-country comparison of paid parental leave.

The x axis shows the number of weeks of paid leave and the x axis lists the country in order of least to most number of weeks of paid leave as we move up the y axis from zero.

The list below shows the countries in each range from the low to high end of the range.

Countries with 0-10 weeks of paid parental leave.

 U. S.

 New Zealand

 Switzerland

 Australia

 Ireland

Countries with 10-20 weeks of paid parental leave.

 Turkey

 United Kingdom

 Mexico

 Cyprus

 Israel

 Malta

 Netherlands

 Spain

Countries with 20-30 weeks of paid parental leave.

 Belgium

 Greece

 France

 Iceland

 Italy

 Canada

 Denmark

Countries with 30-40 weeks of paid parental leave.

 Chile

 Portugal

 Luxembourg

Countries with 40-50 weeks of paid parental leave.

 Korea

 Croatia

 Poland

 Sweden

 Germany

 Finland

Countries with 50-60 weeks of paid parental leave.

 Slovenia

 Slovakia

 Romania

 Norway

 Latvia

 Czech Republic

 Austria

Countries with 60-70 weeks of paid parental leave.

 Lithuania

 Japan

Countries with 70-80 weeks of paid parental leave.

 Hungary

 Bulgaria

Estonia has 87 weeks of paid parental leave.