Читать книгу Economically and Environmentally Sustainable Enhanced Oil Recovery - M. R. Islam - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Chapter 4 solves the puzzle of what really is the fossil fuel ass...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Various steps involved in petroleum technology.Figure 2.2 The usefulness of metal depends on its concentration as well as s...Figure 2.3 Relative output spectra of low- and medium pressure mercury arc l...Figure 2.4 Scientific pathway of a chemical reaction modified from Kalbarczy...Figure 2.5 Pathway followed by arsenic chemicals.Picture 2.1 The refining technique used by the Alchemists.Figure 2.6 History of natural gas production from New York.Figure 2.6a History of oil production in New York (from EIA, 2018).Picture 2.2 Typical proppants, used during fracturing.Figure 2.7 Effect of proppant geometry on fracturing efficiency.Figure 2.8 Public perception toward energy sources (Ipsos, 2011).Figure 2.9 Energy outlook for 2040 as compared to 2016 under various scenari...Figure 2.10 There are different trends in population growth depending on the...Figure 2.11 Per capita energy consumption growth for certain countries.Figure 2.12 A strong correlation between a tangible index and per capita ene...Figure 2.13 While population growth has been tagged as the source of economi...Figure 2.14 Population and energy paradox for China (From Speight and Islam,...Figure 2.15 Energy content of different fuels (MJ/kg) (from Spight and Islam...Figure 2.16 Fossil fuel reserves and exploration activities.Figure 2.17 Discovery of natural gas reserves with exploration activities (F...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Water-fire yin yang, showing how without one the other is meaning...Figure 3.2 The sun, earth, and moon all are moving at a characteristic speed...Figure 3.3 Orbital speed vs size (not to scale) (From Islam, 2014).Figure 3.4 The heart beat (picture above) represents natural frequency of a ...Figure 3.5 Maximum and minimum heart rate for different age groups (From Isl...Figure 3.6 Tangible/intangible duality continues infinitely for mega scale t...Figure 3.7 The transition from time/matter yin yang to energy/mass yin yang....Picture 3.1 It is reported that two galaxies are in a collision course (Cowa...Figure 3.8 Characteristic speed (or frequency) can act as the unique functio...Figure 3.9 Rendering real value into artificial loss, while profiteering.Picture 3.2 The difference between charcoal and diamond can be captured in t...Figure 3.10 Yin yang feature of the various components of water and petroleu...Picture 3.3 This single-celled green diatom won Rogelio Moreno Gill of Panam...Picture 3.4 Diatoms.Figure 3.11 Phase diagram of hydrogen (From Service, 2017).Figure 3.12 Phase diagram of oxygen (from Yen and Nicol, 1987).Figure 3.13 The water-food-energy nexus (from Lal, 2013).Figure 3.14 Carbon-oxygen duality is linked to fire water duality.Figure 3.15 Depiction of thermo-nuclear reactions.Figure 3.16 Temperature profile of the atmospheric layer (data from NASA).Figure 3.17 Spectrum of the greenhouse radiation measured at the surface (mo...Figure 3.18 Conceptual model of the electrical structure in mature, mid-lati...Picture 3.5 Plasma state in the surface of the sun (credit NASA).Figure 3.19 Time-height plot of kinematic, electrical, and cloud microphysic...Figure 3.20 World map of the frequency of lightening (From NASA, 2019).Figure 3.21 Yin yang behaviour in natural elemental ‘particles’.Figure 3.22 The nitrogen cycle.Figure 3.23 Of many different kinds exist within the earth’s waters, soil, a...Figure 3.24 the production of sustainable and unsustainable ammonia.Figure 3.25 Long term variation of the amount of N internationally traded th...Figure 3.26 Amount of extra biomass accumulated for usage of fertilizer.Figure 3.27 The world rise in millions of metric tons (Tg) of N in fertilize...Figure 3.28 The world rise in millions of metric tons (Tg) of N in fertilize...Figure 3.29 World fertilizer use for various types (data from FAO, n.d.).Figure 3.30 Approximate composition of soil.Figure 3.31 Schematic of amino acid metabolism in plants (Redrawn from Fagar...Figure 3.32 Structures of certain amino acids with uncharged side chains (fr...Figure 3.33 Structures of certain amino acids with charged side chains (from...Figure 3.34 Possible reaction mechanisms for nitrogenase. Shown are two poss...Figure 3.35 Ammonification and its relation to other processes.Figure 3.36 Schematic representation of the marine nitrogen cycle and its co...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Energy outlook for 2040 as compared to 2016 under various scenari...Figure 4.2 Public perception toward energy sources (Ipsos, 2011).Figure 4.3 Petroleum is the driver of world economy and driven by political ...Figure 4.4 Oil prices in history since Second World War until 2018 (From Isl...Figure 4.5 Unconventional oil and gas production. (a) oil; (b) gas from EIA ...Figure 4.6 Oil price during the most recent conflict and civil war in Libya ...Figure 4.7 Discounts and correlation with political events (From Cheong, 201...Figure 4.8 Short-term energy outlook (From EIA, 2019a).Figure 4.9 Gas price (in $/million BTU) (From EIA, 2018).Figure 4.10 Gas price (in $/1000 Cuft) (From EIA, 2017).Figure 4.11 $/million BTU gas price history of recent years (from EIA, 2019a...Figure 4.12 USA energy outlook (EIA, 2018).Figure 4.13 Long term projections based on past performace in USA (from EIA,...Figure 4.14 Overall energy trade (From EIA, 2019).Figure 4.15 Role of technology on US oil production (From EIA, 2019).Figure 4.16 Significant because shows the coupling between technology and pr...Figure 4.17 Natural gas trade (EIA, 2019).Figure 4.18 Electricity generation for various energy sources (EIA, 2019).Figure 4.19 US energy consumption by sector and by fuel type (EIA, 2019).Figure 4.20 World energy consumption during 1992–2017 (From BP, 2018), milli...Figure 4.21 Actual global oil production (surface mined tar sand not include...Figure 4.22 Global energy consumption through power generation (BP, 2018), e...Figure 4.23 Reserve to production ratio for various regions. (BP, 2018).Figure 4.24 Proved reserve for various regions. (BP, 2018).Figure 4.25a Crude oil production continues to rise overall (From EIA, 2017)...Figure 4.25b U.S. reserve variation in recent history (From Islam et al., 20...Figure 4.26 Technically recoverable oil and gas reserve in the United States...Figure 4.27 Sulfur content of U.S. crude over last few decades (From EIA, 20...Figure 4.28 Declining API gravity of U.S. crude oil (EIA, 2016).Figure 4.29 Worldwide crude oil quality (from EIA, 2016).Figure 4.30 Even in the short term, the modern age is synonymous with decoup...Figure 4.31 Whole rock Rb-Sr isochron diagram, basement samples (from Islam Figure 4.32 Natural processing time differs for different types of oils.Figure 4.33 Natural processing enhances intrinsic values of natural products...Figure 4.34 The volume of petroleum resources increases as one moves from co...Figure 4.35 Cost of production increases as efficiency, environmental benefi...Picture 4.1 Images of burning crude oil from shale oil (left) and refined oi...Figure 4.36 Overall refining efficiency for various crude oils (modified fro...Figure 4.37 Crude API gravity and heavy product yield of the studied US and ...Figure 4.38 Current estimate of conventional and unconventional gas reserve....Figure 4.39 Abundance of natural resources as a function of time.Figure 4.40 As natural processing time increases so does reserve of natural ...Figure 4.41 ‘Proven’ reserve is miniscule compared to total potential of oil...Figure 4.42 Gulf of Mexico Basin region, the petroleum-producing region of t...Figure 4.43 General region from which petroleum is produced from formations ...Figure 4.44 Area from which petroleum is produced from the Frio Formation, B...Figure 4.45 Three phases of conventional reserve.Figure 4.46 Unconventional reserve growth can be given a boost with scientif...Figure 4.47 Probability distributions for production from wells of an oil or...Figure 4.48 Production data of gas wells in fields in the Ellenburger Group ...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Reservoir images; (a) natural setting; (b) dual-porosity modeling...Figure 5.2 The knowledge model: The abstraction process must be bottom up.Figure 5.3 Schematic cross-sections of borehole breakout and drilling-induce...Figure 5.4 Onshore map of distribution of wells logged with borehole imaging...Figure 5.5 Comparison of resistivity images visualising Drilling Induced ten...Figure 5.6 Comparison of methods of visualizing a 4 m long borehole breakout...Figure 5.7 Section of resistivity images visualizing 3 distinct borehole bre...Figure 5.8 Total SHmax orientation from borehole breakouts from two differen...Figure 5.9 Rose diagrams comparing stress field orientations from this study...Figure 5.10 Map highlighting orientations of SHmax derived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.11 Map highlighting orientations of S_Hmax derived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.12 Map highlighting orientations of S_Hmax derived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.13 Diagram of fractures radius and dip angle for the generated subs...Figure 5.14 Schematic representation of reservoir pressure (Top) after (a) 1...Figure 5.15 The different steps used in optimizing the subsurface fracture m...Figure 5.16 Plot of fracture intensity versus mean square permeability (from...Figure 5.17 Pressure change and pressure derivatives after inversion at well...Figure 5.18 Reconstructing fracture history.Picture 5.1 Surface fractures (Akbar et al., 1993).Figure 5.19 The fracture orientations commonly found in the Middle East (Mah...Figure 5.20 Different types of fractures. (a) intercrystal fractures; (b) un...Figure 5.21 Illustration of the fracture sets in: a folded environment with ...Figure 5.22 Illustration of the fracture sets in a reference environment (fr...Figure 5.23 Schematic of the two zones on the Earth’s crustal region.Figure 5.24 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.25 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.26 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.27 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.28 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.29 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.30 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.31 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.32 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.33 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.34 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.35 Depiction of Warren and Root model .Figure 5.36 Schematic of mud flow in a tight formation with fractures (after...Figure 5.37 Data from a well drilled overbalanced until a certain depth and ...Figure 5.38 Mud log data from a portion of a well drilled underbalanced in t...Figure 5.39 Schematic of the model used by Norbeck (2012).Figure 5.40 Locations of conductive natural fractures along the lateral of W...Figure 5.41 Cross-plot of mud pit volume peak vs. gas peak corresponding to ...Figure 5.42 Locations of conductive natural fractures along the lateral of W...Figure 5.43 Cross-plot of mud pit volume peak vs. gas peak corresponding to ...Figure 5.44 Plan view of Field A. Wells A-1 and A-2 are parallel wells drill...Figure 5.45 Natural fracture system orientation #1 for Field A. A dominant p...Figure 5.46 REV in fractured reservoirs is greater than core size (redrawn f...Picture 5.2 (a) Example of borehole breakout taken by a downhole camera. (b)...Figure 5.47 Comparison of methods of visualizing a 4 m long borehole breakou...Figure 5.48 Comparison of resistivity images visualizing Drilling Induced te...Figure 5.49 Example of an AFIT image log. The horizontal axis is azimuth aro...Picture 5.3 Micro logger.Figure 5.50 These figures illustrate the concept that critically stressed na...Figure 5.51 Processing flow chart of density and acoustic well logging data ...Figure 5.52 Processing flow chart for fracture analyses from well logging.Figure 5.53 Temperature profile shows the existence of a fractured zone (red...Figure 5.54 Fracture signatures from geophysical logs (from Batini et al., 2...Figure 5.55 Fracture analysis from CBIL (from Batini et al., 2002).Figure 5.56 Fracture asset mapped as pole density (from Batini et al., 2002)...Figure 5.57 Core permeability vs. core porosity for a heterogeneous formatio...Figure 5.58 Developing filter out of NMR data.Figure 5.59 Filter for Well “A” (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.60 Filter for “Well B” (Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.61 Filter for “Well C” (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.62 Correlation between core permeability and core porosity (from Ha...Figure 5.63 Correlation between pereambility and BG (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.64 Correlation of permeability vs. S_gx0 (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.65 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “A” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.66 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “B” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.67 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “C” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.68 Correlation between core Pc (blue dots) and NMR Pc (pink line) (...Figure 5.69 Typical relative permeability (y-axis) and capillary pressure cu...Figure 5.70 Representation of the relationships of the relationships between...Figure 5.71 Porosity is only slightly affected by net stress for carbonate f...Figure 5.72 Porosity variation with effective stress (after Okiongbo, 2011)....Figure 5.73 Effect of geological age on porosity (from Ehrenberg et al., 200...Figure 5.74 Porosity variation under net overburden conditions (from Petrowi...Figure 5.75 Effect of overburden stress on matrix and fracture permeability ...Figure 5.76 General trend of N_c vs. residual saturation.Figure 5.77 Several correlations between capillary number and residual oil s...Figure 5.78 General trend of breakthrough recovery and instability number.Figure 5.79 Instability number vs. breakthrough recovery for immiscible gas ...Figure 5.80 Correlation of mobility ratio with oil recovery for waterflood (...Figure 5.81 Correlation between breakthrough recovery and Peters-Flock stabi...Figure 5.82 There is no correlation between capillary number and water break...Picture 5.4 Viscous fingering in a miscible displacement process.Figure 5.83 Typical CO₂ WAG process.Figure 5.84 Breakthrough recovery vs. instability number for miscible flood....Figure 5.85 End-point relative permeability correlates with residual oil sat...Figure 5.86 Relative permeability curves are altered by lowering of interfac...Figure 5.87 Permeability jail can be removed with thermal or chemical altera...Picture 5.5 Outcrops often show how fractures must be prevalent in consolida...Picture 5.6 Thin section photomicrographs of sandstones illustrating A, occu...Picture 5.7 Thin section photomicrographs of sandstones depicting A, open (n...Picture 5.8 Slabbed sandstone displaying reticulated fracture network on wet...Figure 5.88 Critical gas saturation for various permeability values of a gas...Figure 5.89 Permeability vs. porosity correlation depends largely on the nat...Figure 5.90 Correlation of porosity vs. permeability for various types of fo...Figure 5.91 Improvement factor due to open fractures.Figure 5.92 The effect of fractures on k_v/k_h.Figure 5.93 Pore size can be affected by fracture distribution and thereby i...Picture 5.9 Commercial softwares can help identify fractures in FMS logs.Figure 5.94 Rose diagram helps quantify the role of fractures.Figure 5.95 Transiting from macro-pore scale to an initial reservoir model, ...Figure 5.96 REV for a reservoir is much larger than the core samples collect...Picture 5.10 The idea is to transit from microscopic to reservoir scale, fol...Figure 5.97 Laboratory test results under an overburden pressure of 50 MPa....Figure 5.98 Determination of the nature of fractures from hk data.Figure 5.99 Flow chart for Poisson’s ratio determination.Picture 5.11 Different scenarios in fractured shale formation (from Islam et...Figure 5.100 Flow chart for Young’s modulus determination.

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 US oil production in million barrels/day (data from EIA, 2019).Figure 6.2 Global production and consumption (From EIA, 2019). Liquids fuels...Figure 6.3 Number of EOR projects during 1971-2006 (from Alvarado and Manriq...Figure 6.4 EOR projects in post Cold war era (from IEA, 2018).Figure 6.5 Global EOR projects (From IEA, 2018).Figure 6.6 Global oil production due to EOR activities.Figure 6.7 Solar EOR of Oman.Figure 6.8 (a) status quo; (b) Sustainable (from IEA, 2018b).Figure 6.9 Various available EOR methods, with their typical percentage incr...Figure 6.10 Various EOR techniques with subcategories.Figure 6.11 Reserve-to-production ratios (R/P) for various regions and over ...Figure 6.12 US oil production under different categories in 2000 (Data from ...Figure 6.13 Incremental recovery owing to EOR (data from IEA, 2017).Figure 6.14 US reserve/production (R/P) ratio variation over the years (Data...Figure 6.15 US reserve/production (R/P) ratio variation over the years (Data...Figure 6.16 Crude oil production continues to rise overall (Enerdata, 2018)....Figure 6.17 History of US crude oil and lease condensate proved reserve (Dat...Figure 6.18 USA reserve variation in recent history (From EIA, 2018).Figure 6.19 US Gas production history (EIA, 2018).Figure 6.20 US gas reserve-production history (Data from EIA, 2018).Figure 6.21 Sulfur content of the U.S.A. crude over the last few decades (Fr...Figure 6.22 Declining API gravity of USA crude oil (from EIA, 2019a).Figure 6.23 Decline in high-sulfur fuel consumption (From EIA, 2019).Figure 6.24 Worldwide crude oil quality (From Islam, 2014).Figure 6.25 Projection of tight oil under different conditions (from EIA, 20...Figure 6.26 Technically recoverable oil and gas reserve in USA (From Islam e...Figure 6.27 US projections of utilization of various energy sources for elec...Figure 6.28 Last few decades have seen an increase in efficiency of refineri...Figure 6.29 US refining capacity (from EIA, 2018a).Figure 6.30 R/P Ratio vs. proven reserve for top oil producing countries.Figure 6.31 Declared reserve for various countries (Updated from Islam et alFigure 6.32 Changes in global reserve shares (From BP, 2018).Figure 6.33 Distribution of proved reserve for various regions (From BP, 201...Figure 6.34 Distribution of proved reserve for various regions (From BP, 201...Figure 6.35 Global R/P ratios during 1980-2017 (data from BP reports).Figure 6.36 Recovery rates decline around the world (From Speight and Islam,...Figure 6.37 Future prospect of unconventional gas (EIA, 2019).Figure 6.38 Future prospect of unconventional oil and gas in various countri...Figure 6.39 Global unconventional shale oil and gas (dark spots: with resour...Figure 6.40 Three is a lot more oil and gas reserve than the ‘proven’ reserv...Figure 6.41 Major investment in oil sands in Canada (From Islam et al., 2018...Figure 6.42 Past emissions and projected emissions of Alberta, Canada.Figure 6.43 Oil production rate history for top oil producers (from EIA, 201...Figure 6.44 Key to sustainability in energy management.Figure 6.45 Distribution of World’s proven reserve (from Alboudwarej et al.,...Figure 6.46 Viscosity change invoked by temperature (From Alboudwarej et al....Figure 6.47 Much more oil can be recovered with double dividend of environme...Figure 6.48 The need for EOR is evident in production and oil quality declin...Figure 6.49 For the same investment, return is much different depending on t...Figure 6.50 Drilling activities in the United States for various years (EIA,...Figure 6.51 Uncompleted drilling activities in USA (from EIA, 2019).Figure 6.52 Locations of uncompleted drilled wells (from EIA, 2019).

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Projected recovery with thermal and CO₂ injection schemes.Figure 7.2 Evolution of oil production (1000 bbl/day) of EOR projects in the...Figure 7.3 Evolution of CO₂ projects and oil prices in the United States. Fr...Figure 7.4 CO₂-EOR recovery in the United States throughout history (from Is...Figure 7.5 Update information and future prediction of CO₂-EOR (data from EI...Figure 7.6 Alberta government strategy.Figure 7.7 Natural gas production with CO₂ injection schemes. From Khan et a...Figure 7.8 Alberta’s plan to implement comprehensive Carbon management schem...Figure 7.9 CO₂ sequestration demonstration projects around the world.Figure 7.10 Canada’s greenhouse gas emission status (data from Canada Climat...Picture 7.1 Petra Nova Project.Figure 7.11 Carbon intensity of the Petro Nova project (EIA, 2018).Figure 7.12 Rendering CO₂ zero-waste.Figure 7.13 Bitumen production, past and future prediction (from AER, 2018)....Figure 7.14 Annual crude oil production from Oil Sands by Technology (Holly Figure 7.15 Schematic of the SAGD process.Figure 7.16 Average permeability for various formation and their depth. From...Figure 7.17 Schematic of bitumen extraction and processing.Figure 7.18 Phase diagram for various process reactions (from Bose, 2015).Figure 7.19 Removal of sulphur.Figure 7.20 As environmental regulations have become more stringent, natural...Figure 7.21 Change in viscosity for change in temperature.Figure 7.22 Surface tension changes with temperature with different slopes f...Figure 7.23 Residual oil saturation as a function of temperature. Modified f...Figure 7.24 Residual oil reduction with temperature for pre- and poststeamfl...Figure 7.25 Comparison between LASER and cyclic steam injection (modified fr...Figure 7.26 First pilot results of LASER (AER, 2017).Figure 7.27 LASER in second cycle (AER, 2017).Figure 7.28 Greenhouse gas dividend related to Cold Lake project (Bayestehpa...Figure 7.29 Various zones with principal reactions.Figure 7.30 Trends in ISC and HPAI. From Alvarado and Manrique (2010).Figure 7.31 Schematic of THAI process (from Greaves and Xia, 2004).Figure 7.32 Upgrading with THAI and CAPRI (from Greaves and Xia, 2004).Figure 7.33 True boiling points of THAI and upgraded oils (from Hart and Woo...Figure 7.34 Classes of catalytic upgrading reaction pathways for large aliph...Figure 7.35 The process of surfactant manufacturing.Figure 7.36 Increasing temperature leads to decreasing stabilityFigure 7.37 Basic chemical structure of KYPAM. (R1, R2, and R3=H or C1‐C12 a...Figure 7.38 Turning synthetic to natural will accomplish both environmental ...Figure 7.39 A trehalose ester (from Holmberg, 2001).Figure 7.40 Dynamic IFT for two types of surfactants.Figure 7.41 pH and soap concentration profiles along fractional distance at ...Figure 7.42 Pressure maintenance program involves artificially boosting pres...Figure 7.43 Various components of CSEGR.Figure 7.44 Density of CO₂ and CH4 as a function of pressure for various tem...Figure 7.45 Viscosity of CO₂ and CH4 as a function of pressure for various t...Figure 7.46 Crosssection of the CSEGR site (from Islam, 2014).Figure 7.47 Distribution of EOR methods in various lithologies (1500 EOR pro...Figure 7.48 Potential benefits of coupling CO₂ EOR with storage. CCS, carbon...Figure 7.49 Examples of EOR in offshore fields: (a) North Sea EOR Projects (...Figure 7.50a Field pressure of SWAG with low injection rate (from Nangacovie...Figure 7.50b Comparison between WAG and SWAG in North Sea formation. From Na...Figure 7.51 Recovery with various flood scheme (from Kumar and Mondal, 2017)...Figure 7.52 Simplified schematic of a refinery.Figure 7.53 Primary reaction in catalytic reforming.Figure 7.54 The temperature dependence of various components of crude oil (f...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Crude oil formation pathway (After Chhetri and Islam, 2008).Figure 8.2 General activities in oil refining (Chhetri and Islam, 2007b).Figure 8.3 Pathway of oil refining process (After Chhetri et al., 2007).Figure 8.4 Natural gas “well to wheel” pathway.Figure 8.5 Natural gas processing methods (Redrawn from Chhetri and Islam, 2...Figure 8.6 Ethylene glycol oxidation pathway in alkaline solution (After Mat...Figure 8.7 Schematic showing the position of current technological practices...Figure 8.8 Different phases of petroleum operations which are seismic, drill...Figure 8.9 Economic models have to retooled to make price proportional to re...Figure 8.10 Summary of the historical development of the major industrial ca...Figure 8.11 Natural chemicals can turn an sustainable process into a sustain...Figure 8.12 Schematic of wave length and energy level of photon (From Islam Figure 8.13 Breakdown of the no-flaring method (Bjorndalen et al., 2005).Figure 8.14 Supply chain of petroleum operations (Khan and Islam, 2007).Figure 8.15 Typical steam power plant.Figure 8.16 Collector efficiency at different direct normal irradiance (DNI)...Figure 8.17 The thermal loss of the collector with respect to fluid temperat...Figure 8.18 Parabolic Trough.Figure 8.19 Cross section of collector assembly (Redrawn from Odeh et al., 1...Figure 8.20 Constructed parabolic trough.Figure 8.21 Experimental solar trough (from Khan and Islam, 2016).Figure 8.22 Water vapor absorption by Nova Scotia clay (Chhetri and Islam, 2...Figure 8.23 Decrease of pH with time due to sulfur absorption in de-ionized ...Figure 8.24 Schematic of sawdust fuelled electricity generator.Figure 8.25 The schematic of the separation unit (from Chaalal and Islam, 20...Figure 8.26 Unconventional reserve growth can be given a boost with scientif...Figure 8.27 Profitability grows continuously with time when zero-waste oil r...